Text 1. The ancient Greeks

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Western civilization began in the eastern Mediterranean, on the Greek peninsula and neighboring islands.

In the Aegean region, the earliest civilization was that of the Minoan people on the island of Crete. Minoan civilization reached its height between 1700 and 1450 B.C. Somewhat later, about 1300 B.C., Mycenean civilization spread throughout southern Greece. Minoan and Mycenean arts, crafts, and legends became part of the Hellenic civilization that developed about 800 B.C.

One of the most important influences on the thought of the Hellenic Greeks was the poet Homer. His epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey describe heroes who were brave, intelligent, and proud. Developing these qualities became the goal of Greek education. Hellenic ideas spread through the peninsula and to Greek colonies along the Mediterranean and Black seas.

Greece developed as a land of independent city-states, each with its own character. Sparta emphasized military skills, discipline, and service to the polis– the city-state. Athens became the cultural center of Greece and originated the idea of democracy.

Although the Greeks shared the same language, religious beliefs, and Homeric traditions, they had never united. People felt intensely loyal to their own polis, and city-states often fought one another. About 500 B.C., however, the threat of conquest by the Persian Empire forced the Greeks to unite. In battles fought at Marathon in 490 B.C. and Salamis in 480 B.C., they defeated the Persians.

After the Persian Wars, Athens became a direct democracy under the leadership of Pericles. All citizens – free adult men whose parents had both been Athenians – met in the Assembly to debate, vote, and make laws. The Athenians believed that every citizen should participate in government. Women, slaves, and foreigners, however, were denied citizenship and thus had no part in ruling Athens.

The Greeks believed that every person should live a well-rounded life and aim for excellence in all pursuits. These ideals were best served by a life of moderation – a balance between extremes. Greeks expressed these ideals in the arts as well as in science and philosophy.

The Greek playwrights, such as Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, wrote tragedies that used stories of gods and goddesses to explore human problems. In another important form of Greek literature, historians such as Herodotus and Thucydides examined the past with a critical eye.

Greek sculptors and painters showed human beings as beautiful and unflawed, rarely expressing extremes of emotion. Architects tried to bring proportion, balance, and grace to their designs.

Ancient Greek philosophers searched for two kinds of knowledge: knowledge about the natural world and knowledge about human beings’ place in that world. The Greeks believed that nature follows general rules called natural laws, which can be discovered by reason.

Among those who made notable contributions in science and mathematics were Thales, Pythagoras, Democritus, and Hippocrates. Two major philosophers were Socrates and his student Plato. Socrates used a question-and-answer approach, which in time became known as the Socratic method. It required people to think critically and logically. Plato expressed his ideas about government in the Republic, a description of the ideal state.

Aristotle, one of Plato’s students, was an exceptionally brilliant thinker. He tried to discover and organize basic ideas in many fields of knowledge. In science, he taught that a theory should be accepted only if it agreed with observed facts.

In 431 B.C. the city-states of the Peloponnesus, led by Sparta, went to war against Athens, which had built an empire in the land around the Aegean Sea. Pericles died early in the war. Thus deprived of wise leadership Athens was finally forced to surrender in 404 B.C.

The 27-year Peloponnesian War had caused widespread death and destruction. When invaders under Philip of Macedonia later attacked Greece, the weakened city-states were unable to resist. Philip’s warriors crushed the Greek forces in 338 B.C., and the city-states lost their independence.

After Philip was assassinated, his 20-year-old son Alexander became ruler. Known as Alexander the Great, he was one of the greatest military leaders in history. Between 334 and 326 B.C. his armies conquered the lands from Egypt to India without losing a single battle.

After Alexander’s death in 323 B.C. his empire broke apart. However, Greek culture continued to spread and soon dominate the Mediterranean world. A new stage of civilization – the Hellenistic Age – had begun.

Hellenistic scholars included Euclid whose work in geometry is still studied, and Archimedes, an inventor and scientist. Studies in philosophy also continued. Unlike the Hellenic thinkers, who wrote about people as members of a community, Hellenistic philosophers were concerned with people as individuals. Epicureanism, named after Epicurus, urged people to live untroubled lives and not to seek wealth, political power, or fame. Stoicism, founded by Zeno, emphasized dignity, reason, and self-control.