How People Use the Mass Media

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It is probably clear by now that statements made about the functions of mass com­munication in society could be paralleled by statements about how the media function at the level of the individual. Consequently, we are going to shift from our wide-angle lens to a close-up lens and focus on how the individual uses mass communication (in other words, we are moving from macro- to microanalysis). At the individual levels the functional approach is given the general name of the uses-and-gratifications model. In its simplest form, the uses-and-gratifications model posits that audience members have certain needs or drives that are satisfied by using both nonmedia and media sources. This discussion will be concerned more with media-related sources of satisfaction. The actual needs satisfied by the media are called media gratifications. Our knowledge of these uses and gratifications typically comes from surveys that have asked people a large number of questions about how they use the media. Several researchers have classified the various uses and gratifications into a fourfold category system, consisting of cognition, diversion, social utility and withdrawal.

Cognition means the act of coming to know something. When a person uses a mass medium to obtain information about something, then he or she is using the medium in a cognitive way. Clearly, the individual's cognitive use of a medium is directly parallel to the surveillance function at the macroanalytical level. At the individual level, however, researchers have noted that there are two different types of cognitive functions that are performed. One has to do with using the media to keep up with information on current events, while the other has to do with using the media to learn about things in general or things that relate to a person's general curiosity. To illustrate, several surveys have found that many people give the following reasons for using the media:

I want to keep up with what the government is doing.

I want to understand what is going on in the world.

I want to know what political leaders are doing.

These reasons constitute the current-events type of cognitive gratification. At the same time, many people also report the following reasons for using mass media:

I want to learn how to do things I've never done before.

I want to satisfy my curiosity.

The media make me want to learn more about things.

The media give me ideas.

These statements illustrate the second type of cognition-using the media to satisfy a desire for general knowledge.

Psychologists and sociologists point out that using the media in this fashion seems to address a person's cognitive needs. These needs are related to strengthening our knowledge and understanding of the world we live in and are based to a certain extent on a desire to explore and master the surrounding environment. Thus the use of the media in this way is linked to the fulfillment of a basic human need.

Another basic need of human beings is for diversion. Diversion can take many forms. Some of these forms identified by researchers include (1) stimulation, or seeking relief from boredom or the routine activities of everyday life; (2) relaxation, or escape from e pressures and problems of day-to-day existence; and (3) emotional release of pent- up emotions and energy. Let's look at each of these gratifications in more detail.

Stimulation. One thing that human beings cannot seem to cope with is boredom. In fact, when individuals are deprived of all external stimulation-a situation created by psychologists in studies dealing with sensory deprivation-the mind begins to halluci­nate in order to create its own amusement. In less drastic circumstances, seeking emotional or intellectual stimulation seems an inherent motivation in a human being. Psychologists, in fact, have labeled these activities "ludic behaviors"-play, recreation, and other forms of activity that seem to be performed to maintain a minimum level of intellectual activity. Several surveys have shown that many people report that they watch, read, or listen simply to pass the time. When there is nothing else to do, many individuals fill up their idle time with mass media content simply because it's better than being bored. For example, a good deal of listening to radio and record players occurs when people are alone and are seeking additional stimulation. At the same time, many parties with a lot of people present are characterized by loud music, which also represents an attempt to increase the level of stimulation normally present. The media have taken advantage of this need to avoid boredom in many creative ways. Ted Turner has started an airport TV channel that beams news and commercials to passengers in airline terminals. Some airlines show CNN during long flights. Supermarkets have grocery carts with a video screen that displays the latest bargains. There are now special magazines that are distributed only to doctors' waiting rooms. Advertisements are now found on walls and the backs of stall doors in rest rooms.

Relaxation. Too much stimulation, however, is undesirable. Psychological experiments have indicated that human beings are negatively affected by a condition called "sensory overload" in which too much information and stimulation are present in the environment. When faced with sensory overload, people tend to seek relief. The media are one source of this relief. To illustrate, people read magazines or newspapers or watch TV in an attempt to get away from the cares of the day. The choice of material used for relaxation might not always be apparent from surface content. Some people might relax by reading articles about Civil War history; others might read about astronomy or electronics. Still others might relax by listening to serious classical music. The content is not the defining factor since virtually any media material might be used for relaxation by some audience members. Of all the media, radio or recordings seem to serve the relaxation function most frequently. Many people use clock radios with an automatic shut-off to help them get to sleep at night. "Beautiful music" stations play relaxing music all day long. Even television newcasts are structured in such a way as to help the audience relax. No matter how terrible the events of the day, the newscaster is there with a calm, confident manner, apparently reassuring us that things are under control.

Emotional Release. The last manifestation of the diversion function is the most complex. On the one hand, the use of the media for emotional release is fairly obvious. To illustrate, the horror movie has had a long history of popularity in America. Why do audiences cheer when Rocky goes the distance? Probably because people enjoy a certain amount of emotional release. People feel better after a good scream (especially when the monster and bad guy are on the screen where they can't get at you) or a good cry (especially when the troubles are happening to somebody else.

On the other hand, emotional release can take more subtle forms. One of the big attractions of soap operas, for example, seems to be that many people in the audiences are comforted by seeing that other people (even fictional people) have troubles greater than their own. Other people identify with media heroes and heroines and participate vicariously in their triumphs. Such a process evidently enables these people to vent some of the frustrations connected with their normal lives.

Psychologists have also identified a set of social integrative needs, including our need to strengthen our contact with family, friends, and others in our society. The social integrative need seems to spring from an individual's need to affiliate with others. The media function that addresses this need is called social utility, and this usage can take several forms. First, have you ever talked about a TV program with a friend? Have you ever discussed a current movie or the latest record you've heard on the radio? If so, then you are using the media as conversational currency. The media provide a common ground for social conversations, and many people use things that they have read, seen, or heard as topics for discussion when talking with others. There is a certain social usefulness in having a large repository of things to talk about so that no matter where you are you can usually strike up a conversation and be fairly sure that the person you are talking to is familiar with the subject. ("What did you think of the Super Bowl?" "How did you like Jurassic Park?").

Social utility is apparent in other instances as well. Going to the movies is probably the most common dating behavior among adolescents. The motion picture theater represents a place where it is socially acceptable to sit next to your date in a dark room without parental supervision. In fact, many times the actual film is of secondary importance, and the social event of going out has the most appeal.

Other people report that they use the media, particularly TV and radio, as a means to overcome loneliness. The TV set represents a voice in the house for people who might otherwise be alone. Radio keeps people company in their cars. People who might otherwise be deprived of social relationships find companionship in media content and media personalities. In fact, some viewers might go so far as to develop feelings of kinship and friendship with media characters. Audience members might react to media performers and the characters they portray as if the performers were actual friends. This phenomenon is called a parasocial relationship, and there is some evidence that it actually occurs

In our previous discussion we noted that humans occasionally need to escape from certain activities and that, in this connection, they use the media not only for relaxation but also for purposes that are best described as withdrawal uses. At times, people use the mass media to create a barrier between themselves and other people or other activities. For example, the media help people avoid certain chores that should be done. Perhaps many of you have put off your homework and class assignments until after you've finished watching a TV program or reading the newspaper. Children are quick to learn how to use the media in this fashion. This hypothetical exchange might be familiar:

"It's your turn to let the dog out."

"I can't. I want to finish watching this program. You do it."

Or:

"Answer the telephone."

"I can't. I'm reading. You get it."

In both instances, attending to mass media content was defined as a socially appropriate behavior that should not be interrupted. In this manner, other tasks might be put off or avoided entirely.

People also use the media to create a buffer zone between themselves and other people. When you are riding a bus or an airplane or sitting in a public place and don't want t0 be disturbed, you bury your head in a book, magazine, or newspaper.

Ex.1. How can the uses and gratifications model be classified?

Ex.2. What is cognition?

Ex.3. Suggest what is meant by diversion and what forms can it take?