Glossary

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UNESCO	- specialized agency of the United Nations that was created in 1946 to contribute to world peace by promoting international collaboration in education, science, and culture. The activities of UNESCO are mainly facilitative; the organization attempts to assist, support, and complement national efforts of member states in the elimination of illiteracy and the extension of free education.
Babylon	- one of the most famous cities of antiquity. It was the capital of southern Mesopotamia (Babylonia) from the early 2nd millennium to the early 1st millennium BC and capital of the Neo-Babylonian (Chaldean) Empire in the 7th and 6th centuries BC, when it was at the height of its splendour. Its extensive ruins on the Euphrates River about 55 miles (88 kilometres) south of Baghdad lie near the modern town of al-Hillah, Iraq.
Sumer	- site of the earliest known civilization, located in the southernmost part of Mesopotamia between the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers, in the area that later became Babylonia and is now southern Iraq from around Baghdad to the Persian Gulf.
Assyria	- kingdom of northern Mesopotamia that became the centre of one of the great empires of the ancient Middle East. It was located in what is now northern Iraq and southeastern Turkey.
Hittites	- members of an ancient Indo-European people who appeared in Anatolia at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC; by 1340 BC they had become one of the dominant powers of the Middle East.
Anatolia	=Turkish Anadolu , also called Asia Minor the peninsula of land that today constitutes the Asian portion of Turkey. Because of its location at the point where the continents of Asia and Europe meet, Anatolia was, from the beginnings of civilization, a crossroads for numerous peoples migrating or conquering from either continent.
Mesopotamia	- the region in southwestern Asia where the world's earliest civilization developed. The name comes from a Greek word meaning “between rivers,” referring to the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, but the region can be broadly defined to include the area that is now eastern Syria.
Aramaic language	- Semitic language of the Northern Central, or Northwestern, group that was originally spoken by the ancient Middle Eastern people known as Aramaeans. It was most closely related to Hebrew, Syriac, and Phoenician and was written in a script derived from the Phoenician alphabet.
Confucius	- born 6c. BC, China's most famous teacher, philosopher, and political theorist, whose ideas have influenced the civilization of East Asia.
Marshal McLuhan	- born July 21, 1911, Edmonton, Alberta, Can. died Dec. 31, 1980, Toronto Canadian communications theorist and educator, whose aphorism “the medium is the message” summarized his view of the potent influence of television, computers, and other electronic disseminators of information in shaping styles of thinking and thought, whether in sociology, art, science, or religion. He regarded the printed book as an institution fated to disappear.
William Morris	- born March 24, 1834, Walthamstow, near London died Oct. 3, 1896, Hammersmith, near London English designer, craftsman, poet, and early Socialist, whose designs for furniture, fabrics, stained glass, wallpaper, and other decorative products generated the Arts and Crafts Movement in England and revolutionized Victorian taste.
Hellenistic Greece	- relating to Greek history, culture and art after Alexander the Great, in 323 BC to the conquest of Egypt by Rome in 30 BC.
Thucydides	- born 460 BC, or earlier? died after 404, BC? , greatest of ancient Greek historians and author of the History of the Peloponnesian War, which recounts the struggle between Athens and Sparta in the 5th century BC. His work was the first recorded political and moral analysis of a nation's war policies.
New Testament Gospels	- any of four biblical narratives covering the life and death of Jesus Christ. Written, according to tradition, respectively by Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John (the four evangelists), they are placed at the beginning of the New Testament and make up about half the total text. The word gospel is derived from the Anglo-Saxon term god-spell, meaning “good story,” a rendering of the Latin evangelium and the Greek euangelion, meaning “good news” or “good telling.”
Rhapsodist	- any of the dramatic reciters of ancient Greece, dating from the 6th century BC. In the oral epic tradition, rhapsodists were preceded by Homeric singers of their own epic songs and, like them, were musically accompanied on the lyre and aulos. To heighten dramatic effect, rhapsodists used a staff for symbolic gesturing. Their intonation of poetry probably involved a simple chant rather than a recognizable tune.
The Septuagint	- the earliest extant Greek translation of the Old Testament from the original Hebrew, presumably made for the use of the Jewish community in Egypt when Greek was the lingua franca throughout the region.
Sophocles	- born c. 496 BC, Colonus, near Athens [Greece] died 406, Athens with Aeschylus and Euripides, one of classical Athens' three great tragic playwrights. The best known of his 123 dramas is Oedipus the King.
Aristophanes	- born c. 450 BC died c. 388 BC the greatest representative of ancient Greek comedy, and the one whose works have been preserved in the greatest quantity.
Cicero	- born 106 BC, Arpinum, Latium [now Arpino, Italy] died Dec. 7, 43 BC, Formiae, Latium, Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, and writer who vainly tried to uphold republican principles in the final civil wars that destroyed the republic of Rome. His writings include books of rhetoric, orations, philosophical and political treatises, and letters. He is remembered in modern times as the greatest Roman orator and innovator of what became known as Ciceronian rhetoric.
Pliny the Elder	- born AD 23, Novum Comum, Transpadane Gaul [now in Italy] died Aug. 24, 79, Stabiae, near Mt. Vesuvius Latin, in full Gaius Plinius Secundus , Roman savant and author of the celebrated Natural History, an encyclopaedic work of uneven accuracy that was an authority on scientific matters up to the Middle Ages.
Ptolomy V	- born c. 210 died 180 BC Macedonian king of Egypt from 205 BC under whose rule Coele Syria and most of Egypt's other foreign possessions were lost.
Eumenes II	- died 160/159 BC king of Pergamum from 197 until his death. A brilliant statesman, he brought his small kingdom to the peak of its power and did more than any other Attalid monarch to make Pergamum a great centre of Greek culture in the East.
Pergamum	- Greek Pergamon, ancient Greek city in Mysia, situated 16 miles from the Aegean Sea on a lofty isolated hill on the northern side of the broad valley of the Caicus (modern Bakir) River. The site is occupied by the modern town of Bergama, in the il (province) of Izmir, Turkey.
Origen	- born c. 185, , probably Alexandria, Egypt died c. 254, , Tyre, Phoenicia [now Sur, Lebanon] Latin in full Oregenes Adamantius the most important theologian and biblical scholar of the early Greek church. His greatest work is the Hexapla, which is a synopsis of six versions of the Old Testament.
Tertulian	- born c. 155, /160, Carthage [now in Tunisia] died after 220, Carthage, Latin in full Quintus Septimus Florens Tertullianus, important early Christian theologian, polemicist, and moralist who, as the initiator of ecclesiastical Latin, was instrumental in sha- ping the vocabulary and thought of Western Christianity.
St Augustine	- born Nov. 13, 354, Tagaste, Numidia [now Souk Ahras, Algeria] died Aug. 28, 430, Hippo Regius [now Annaba, Algeria] also called Saint Augustine of Hippo, original Latin name Aurelius Augustinus feast day August 28, bishop of Hippo from 396 to 430, one of the Latin Fathers of the Church, one of the Doctors of the Church, and perhaps the most significant Christian thinker after St. Paul.
St Jerome	- born c. 347, Stridon, Dalmatia died 419/420, Bethlehem, Palestine, Latin in full Eusebius Hieronymus, pseudonym Sophronius ; feast day September 30, biblical translator and monastic leader, traditionally regarded as the most learned of the Latin Fathers. He lived for a time as a hermit, became a priest, served as secretary to Pope Damasus, and about 389 established a monastery at Bethlehem. His numerous biblical, ascetical, monastic, and theological works profoundly influenced the early Middle Ages. He is known particularly for his Latin translation of the Bible, the Vulgate.
The Vulgate	- (from the Latin editio vulgata: “common version”), Latin Bible used by the Roman Catholic Church, primarily translated by St. Jerome. In 382 Pope Damasus commissioned Jerome, the leading biblical scholar of his day, to produce an accetable Latin version of the Bible from the various translations then being used. His revised Latin translation of the Gospels appeared about 383. Using the Septuagint Greek version of the Old Testament, he produced new Latin translations of the Psalms (the so-called Gallican Psalter), the Book of Job, and some other books. Later, he decided that the Septuagint was unsatisfactory and began translating the entire Old Testament from the original Hebrew versions, a process that he completed about 405.
St. Benedict	- founder of the Benedictine monastery at Monte Cassino and father of Western monasticism; the rule that he established became the norm for monastic living throughout Europe. In 1964, in view of the work of monks following the Benedictine Rule in the evangelization and civilization of so many European countries in the Middle Ages, Pope Paul VI proclaimed him the patron saint of all Europe.
The Book of Kells	- illuminated gospel book (MS. A.I. 6; Trinity College Library, Dublin) that is a masterpiece of the ornate Hiberno-Saxon style. It is probable that the illumination was begun in the late 8th century at the Irish monastery on the Scottish island of Iona and that after a Viking raid the book was taken to the monastery of Kells in County Meath, where it may have been completed in the early 9th century. A facsimile was published in 1974.
The Lindsfarne Gospels	- manuscript, British Museum, London, illuminated in the late 7th or 8th century in the Hiberno-Saxon style. The book was probably made for Eadfrith, the bishop of Lindisfarne from 698 to 721. Attributed to the Northumbrian school, the Lindisfarne Gospels show the fusion of Irish, classical, and Byzantine elements of manuscript illumination.
The Book of Hours	- devotional book widely popular in the later Middle Ages. The book of hours began to appear in the 13th century, containing prayers to be said at the canonical hours in honour of the Virgin Mary. The growing demand for smaller such books for family and individual use created a prayerbook style enormously popular among the wealthy. The demand for the books was crucial to the development of Gothic illumination. These lavishly decorated texts, of small dimensions, varied in content according to their patrons' desires.
William Caxton	- born c. 1422, , Kent, Eng. died 1491, London the first English printer, who as a translator and publisher exerted an important influence on English literature.
Wynkyn de Worde	- Alsatian-born printer in London, an astute businessman who published a large number of books (at least 600 titles from 1501). He was also the first printer in England to use italic type (1524).
Richard Pynson	- a Norman who operated a press in London from 1490 to about 1530. Pynson, who used the first roman type in England in 1518, issued more than 400 works during his approximately 40 years of printing.
Desierius Erasmus	- born Oct. 27, 1469, Rotterdam, Holland [now in The Netherlands] died July 12, 1536, Basel, Switz. humanist who was the greatest scholar of the northern Renaissance, the first editor of the New Testament, and also an important figure in patristics and classical literature.
Thomas A Kempis	- born 1379/80, Kempen, near Dusseldorf, the Rhineland [now in Germany] died Aug. 8, 1471, Agnietenberg, near Zwolle, Bishopric of Utrecht [now in The Netherlands] original name Thomas Hemerken Christian theologian, the probable author of De Imitatione Christi (Imitation of Christ), a devotional book that, with the exception of the Bible, has been considered the most influential work in Christian literature.
Martin Luther	- born Nov. 10, 1483, Eisleben, Saxony [Germany] died Feb. 18, 1546, Eisleben German priest and scholar whose questioning of certain church practices led to the Protestant Reformation. He is one of the pivotal figures of Western civilization, as well as of Christianity. By his actions and writings he precipitated a movement that was to yield not only one of the three major theological units of Christianity (along with Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy) but was to be a seedbed for social, economic, and political thought.
The Privy Councul	- historically, the British sovereign's private council. Once powerful, the Privy Council has long ceased to be an active body, having lost most of its judicial and political functions since the middle of the 17th century.
The Universal Copyright Convention	- (1952), convention adopted at Geneva by an international conference convened under the auspices of UNESCO, which for several years had been consulting with copyright experts from various countries. The convention came into force in 1955. The Soviet union joined the Convention in 1973.
The Great Depression-	economic slump in North America, Europe, and other industrialized areas of the world that began in 1929 and lasted until about 1939. It was the longest and most severe depression ever experienced by the industrialized Western world.

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