Usage of articles with shops, banks, hotels, churches.

84. What non-finite forms of the verb are there in English? What grammatical categories are typical of them?

There are the following non-finite forms of the verb, or verbals: the infinitive, the gerund and the participle (participle I or participle II).

The verbals have much in common in their grammatical features, therefore a comparative survey of the verbals will be given here.

Semantics

The verbals (like the finite forms of the verb) express actions, states or processes (see above, "The Verb", 1.1.0).

Morphological Characteristics

The three verbals: the infinitive, the gerund and the participle I — have the grammatical categories of order and voice. The infinitive has also a third grammatical category — aspect.*

Order

The category of order is built up by two forms: perfect and non-perfect.

Perfect non-perfect

Infinitive to ask, to give to have asked, to have given

Gerund asking, giving having asked, having given

Participle I asking, giving having asked, having given

The perfect form is used to present the event as prior to another event (generally prior to the event expressed by the predicate verb).

I am glad to have given her this book. (I am glad that I gave her the book. I gave her the book then, and now I am glad.)

I was glad to have givenher this book. (I was glad that I had given her the book. I gave her the book and was glad afterwards.)

The non-perfect form will be generally used to present the event as non-prior to another event (simultaneous, posterior or referring to no particular time).

I enjoyed readingthe book. (While reading the book I enjoyed the process, i.e. simultaneously.)

We very much approve of his readingsuch books. (We approve that he reads such books, but do not specify the time when he does it.

He took the book from the library, readingit on his way home. (He took the book from the library and read it on his way home, i.e. afterwards.)

Note:The perfect infinitive when used after the verbs, "intend", "expect", "hope", "mean" and also after the modal verbs "should", "ought", "be" has the additional meaning of unreality — it will indicate that the action denoted by the infinitive was not carried out.

He intended (ought) to have home. (It was his intention or it was necessary for him to do it, but it did not happen.)

Harriet was surprised although she realized when she thought about it that she ought not to have been. (Brm.)

(See also "The Modal Verbs", 1.4.4.)

Voice

The category of voice is built up by two forms: passive and active.

The active form of the verbal will indicate that the doer of the action is denoted by the subject of the sentence, the passive form — that the doer of the action is not denoted by the subject of the sentence.

I wanted to askhim that question.

T wanted to be askedthat question.

Note:In certain cases the verbal (the infinitive or the gerund) though active in form may be passive in meaning. The infinitive may indicate it when used as predicative in some traditional contexts.

They were not to blame.

The reason is not far to seek.

The house is to let.

It was a city to remember. (Mel.)

The gerund will be passive in meaning when used after the verbs "want", "need", "require" and the adjective "worth".

The garden was a jungle, the woodwork needed painting. (Ptr.)

Emrys should count himself lucky. He's got one friend worth having. (Eb.)

Aspect

The category or aspect is built up by two aspect forms: continuous and common. Only one verbal, as was said above, has the category of aspect — it is the infinitive.

common continuous

to write, to read to be writing, to be reading

The continuous form of the infinitive will generally indicate that the event is presented as temporary, as being in progress at the time of another event or at a definite moment (period). The common form will be often used just to name the event without specifying its character or time.

I like to be readinga book now. (It is very pleasant to me that I am reading a book.)

I like to readbooks. (I like doing it whenever I have the opportunity, though at the moment I may be doing something else.)

* * *

Participle II, as was said above, has one unalterable form. Consequently, it has no morphological grammatical categories.

When formed from transitive terminative verbs (see above "The Verb". 1.1.2. 1.1.3), it is generally passive and perfective in meaning.

The answer givenby him did not explain his former-attitude.

When askedhe did not know what to say.

When formed from non-terminative transitive verbs it is generally passive but non-perfective.

She is a clever pleasant girl calledMary Anne.

Note:When formed from non-transitive verbs such as "fall", "wither", "vanish", "return", "grow" (in the meaning of "grow up") and a few others participle II is active in meaning.

He is a retired soldier. (He is no longer in active service.)

We sat on a fallen tree trunk to look at the view. (Ptr.)

85. Infinitive constructions. Complex Subject. Complex Object. For – Construction.

The infinitive is used in three predicative constructions: complex object (the objective with the infinitive construction), complex subject (the subjective infinitive construction) and the for-to-infinitive construction.