Text 1. The Rise Of The Republic

Read the text and do the tasks that follow.

There was great panic in the city and through mutual fear, all was suspense. The people left in the city dreaded the violence of the senators; the senators dreaded the people remaining in the city, uncertain whether they should prefer to stay or to depart; but how long would the multitude which had seceded remain quiet? What were to be the consequences then, if, in the meantime, any foreign war should break out?

Livy wrote that description, telling of the crisis in Rome in 494 B.C. The common people of Rome had seceded, or moved out of the city. They were very angry over their treatment by the rich and powerful leaders of Rome. The leaders knew that their city was in serious danger unless the common people returned. So they agreed to give the people more rights. This crisis between the Roman leaders and the people marked the beginning of a 200-year struggle by the common people of Rome to gain equal rights.

With the overthrow of the last Etruscan in 509 B.C., Roman leaders adopted a very new form of government – a republic. In a republic, citizens elect leaders to run their government. The leaders the citizens elected to replace the king were called consuls. These consulswere leaders elected by a citizen assembly and advised by a Senate. Although the citizens elected their representatives, the early Roman Republic was not a democracy because not every citizen had the same economic power. Citizens were divided into two classes, patricians and plebeians. Patricianswere members of the small number of wealthy Roman families. Plebeians were the bulk of the population – artisans, shopkeepers, and peasants. Class was determined by birth.

As citizens, both patricians and plebeians had the right to vote. However, only patricians could hold political, military, or religious offices. All power was in the hands of the patricians.

Though most plebeians were poor, some were quite wealthy. They believed that they should have the same social and political rights as the patricians.

The poor plebeians, too, believed that the system was unfair. When a poor plebeian had to borrow money from the rich to survive, he and his family were forced into debt bondage. A man in debt bondagebecame a servant of the man to whom he owned the money. He was treated almost like a slave, and, without wages, he could never get the money he needed to regain his freedom. Yet the patrician government did nothing to end this cruel practice.

Roman citizens were divided into patricians and plebeians. But Roman society as a whole was also divided into two groups: citizen and slave. Adult male citizens had certain rights, such as the right to vote and to own property. Women citizens, however, had limited rights. They could not vote or take part in the government but were protected by Roman laws. Slaves, war captives, were owned by citizens and had no rights.

Although the plebeians had fewer rights than the patricians, they still had to serve in the army and pay taxes to the very forces that were oppressing them. By 494 B.C., the plebeians had suffered long enough. They withdrew from Rome and formed their own assembly, which was known as the Council of Plebeians. They also elected their own officials, who were called tribunes.

The patricians had no choice but to let the plebeians keep their assembly and their tribunes. Tribunes were to protect plebeian rights. The plebeians could vote against any unjust law passed by the Senate.

Next, the plebeians demanded a reform of the laws. Rome’s laws had never been written down. The plebeians believed that patrician judges took advantage of this fact to rule unfairly against plebeians.

Finally in 450 B.C., the laws were engraved on 12 bronze tablets called the Twelve Tables. The tablets were then displayed in the Forum, so all citizens could appeal to them, though few could actually read them.

During the 300s B.C., the plebeians gained more and more of the rights already held by the patricians. The priesthood was opened to plebeians. Debt bondage was outlawed. Eventually, plebeians even won the right to become members of the Senate.

Though the plebeians had made many gains, the plebeians and patricians still had separate political bodies. The law passed by the patrician Senate applied to everyone. However, the laws passed by the plebeian assembly applied only to plebeians.

The plebeians demanded that the laws passed by their assembly apply to all citizens, plebeian and patrician alike. Once again, the plebeians forced the issue by withdrawing from Rome. This time, the patricians gave in and, in 287 B.C., agreed to meet the demands of the plebeians. After more than 200 years of struggle, plebeians and patricians were finally equal under Roman law.

As the plebeians gained power, the Republic became more democratic. Since 509 B.C., the Roman government had been headed by two consuls. By 367 B.C., one of these consuls had to be a plebeian. The consuls had the same powers as the early kings, but with two important limitations. To avoid one person rule, consuls were elected to serve only one year, and each consul could veto the other’s actions. The word veto is from the Latin word meaning “I forbid.”

The consuls carried on the daily business of the government and of the army. They were also advised by a Senate made up of 300 citizens. The Senate controlled the Roman treasury and foreign policy. Most of the senators were members of wealthy Roman families. Though the consuls changed each year, senators were chosen for life. The Senate was the most powerful group in the government of the Roman Republic.

Laws proposed by the Senate could be approved or disapproved by citizen assemblies. Candidates for consul were also elected by these assemblies. The government of the Republic spread its power among many groups.