Leasing

This form of...... has grown considerably in the last de­
cade and offers the use of...... without the investment of

capital or other liquid......

The advantages of leasing locally in the country of......

are:

1. The lessee is not exposed to currency.....

2. The lessee obtains..... for 100 per cent of the delivered

costs.

3. The lessee may negotiate rental ... over a period which

matches the useful life of the.....

Midland Montagu Leasing Limited, a..... of the Midland

Bank Group, can assist exporters of.... goods in introduc­
ing them and their .._ to major leasing in most parts

of the world. In certain countries where the Group has es­
tablished a....... operations, first hand assistance can be

given to the...... in his negotiations with the overseas buyer

in the provision of..... facilities.

Unit Eight

Medium Term Export Finance

Part II

The text to follow is not preceded by a list of new words, as all its terminology should be already known to you. By re­viewing the vocabulary of previous units check your under­standing of the basic financial terminology.

TEXT

Read the text below concentrating on its contents and ter­minology:

Buyer credit.For the larger or more complex contracts it is often the best course for the finance to be provided in the form of a loan direct to an approved borrower who is not necessarily the buyer in the country concerned, rather than

to an exporter.

Single project finance.Buyer credit financing facilities are provided with the support of a guarantee from ECGD which enables I lie bank to advance a large proportion of the finance at fixed and preferential rates of interest. It is available on contracts for capital goods and related services with a value greater than £1 million, provided that the buyer is not an EEC country. As a general rule, the facility covers 80 per cent of the UK content but a proportion of local costs also can sometimes be included. The balance of the financing is ex­pected to be provided by the buyer and this can be very often arranged by a bank as a separate loan on commercial terms.

197

The interest rate for financing guaranteed by ECGD is usu­ally not only lower than the ruling commercial rate but is also fixed for the entire period of the loan which is particularly important for larger projects.

As well as the supply contract between an exporter and an overseas buyer, a buyer credit involves three separate agree­ments: a loan agreement between the lending bank and the overseas buyer or borrower; a guarantee agreement between ECGD and the lending bank; and a premium agreement be­tween ECGD and the exporter.

A loan agreement is concluded between the bank and an ECGD-approved overseas borrower. This provides for funds to be paid to an exporter on presentation of documentation specified in the loan agreement (which confirms that the sum claimed is due for payment).

If the supply contract allows, it is possible under the loan agreement for funds to be paid to an exporter before deliv­ery or at different stages of a project's progress and execu­tion.

The loan agreement also slates the conditions to be met before finance is made available and sets out arrangements for payment of interest and repayment of principal. It also includes provisions for default under the agreement; any arbitration and termination of the supply contract; and, where appropriate, insurance. All bank commissions and fees arising from the agreement are payble by the overseas tor-rower.

It is essential that an exporter approaches ECGD and a bank at an early stage of negotiations with an overseas buyer so that they can indicate the conditions for any support, in­cluding the credit terms and the interest rale.

How buyer credit works is illustraled on Ihe next pages.

Lines of credit.Buyer credit facilities arc usually provided in support of a single export supply contracl, bul il is also

possible to extend credit to an overseas buyer by providing a single loan facility to cover a number of separate supply con­tracts. This is the line of credil arrangemenl. A line of credil can take two dislincl forms.

A general purpose line of credit — covering a number of differenl requirements of capital goods not related to a spe­cific project — is usually negotiated by a UK bank with a bank or other financial inslilution in the overseas country con­cerned. The need for a line of credil is determined after prior discussion between interested parties in both countries. The banks concerned Ihen publicise Ihe line of credil lo polenlial exporters.

A project line of credit — by definilion confirmed lo a spe­cific projecl — is often established by the main exporter or conlraclor or by an overseas buyer.

The finance available under lines of credil is normally 80 lo 85 per cent of the contracl value. 10 per cent (sometimes less) of each contracl price is usually paid direclly by an over­seas buyer wilhin 30 days of signalure of Ihe conlracl and further direcl paymenls made on a pro rala basis according lo Ihe value of each shipment lo Ihe buyer.

The lenglh of credil will vary according lo Ihe conlracl value allhough general purpose lines of credil usually range be­tween two and five years. ECGD slipulales a minimum con­tract value which can be as low as J10,000.

Midland Bank Group.Midland Bank, as a leading inter­national bank, offers a full financing service lo UK and over­seas exporters. Overdraft facililies for exporting, advances againsl and negolialions of bills and documenlary credil op­erations are readily available. Initial conlacl should be made wilh Midland's local bank branch or one of Ihe International Division regional branches.

Midland Bank Group International Trade Services pro­vides trade finance to UK and overseas exporters, including

198

199

the negotiation of credit insurance where necessary. Its UK export finance pouse subsidiary is Midland International Trade Services I(UK) Ltd.

Griffin Factors, part of Midland's Forward Trust Group, is a major UK export factoring company. Griffin is a member of Factors Chain International which links factoring compa­nies in major trading nations, providing information and ser­vices for Griffin clients in several overseas markets.

Samuel Montagu and Co., Midland's international mer­chant bank, provides medium and long-term finance for ex­ports, including Eurocurrency loans and bond issues, and equity and joint venture participations. Samuel Montagu is a member of the Accepting Houses Commit lee and conducts regular acceplancc credits business.

Forward Trust Group can assist UK exporters of capital goods by arranging leasing operations through major leasing companies in many parts of the world. Through its member­ship of two internalional leasing associalions, Ebiclease and Leaseclub, Forward Trust is in contacl wilh major leasing companies to enable exporters to obtain prompt service and accurate information on the conditions of leasing for their overseas buyers.

Forward Trust has a growing instalment finance business with various major trading nations. Through its connections with EXFINTER (Export Finance International) it provides instalment finance of various kinds in several European coun­tries. Forward Troust Group also coordinates all the factor­ing, leasing and instalment finance aclivilies of Midland Bank Group.

Whatever the financial requirements of UK exporters, the various associated companies of Midland Bank Group can meet them, whether for a short or longer credit period, whether an exporter or a buyer receives it; and in whatever form it is needed.

I Comprehension.Answer the following questions:

1. What is often the best way of financing large and complex

export contracts?

2. What contracls are buyer credit financing facilities usu­
ally available for?

3. What percentage of the contract value does the facility
usually cover?

4. Who is expected to balance the financing and how can Ihis

be arranged?

5. Whal preferential treatment-is provided for large single
projects which financing is guaranteed by ECGD?

6. List three separate agreements and their participants in­
volved in a buyer credit.

7. Who pays all bank commissions and fees arising from the
agreement?

8. Whal Iwo kinds of credit facililies are available for an over-

seas buyer? Whal does the choice depend on?

9. Who is Ihe need for a general purpose line of credil deter­
mined by?

10. How does a general purpose line of credil differ from a
project line of credil?

11. Whal percenlagc of Ihe conlract value docs the finance

available under lines of credil usually cover? And how is the resl of Ihe conlracl value normally balanced?

12. Lisl financing facilities offered to UK and overseas ex­
porters by leading international banks.

13. List Ihe Midland Bank Internalional Divisions and Ihe
financing services offered by each of Ihem.

200

201

II

Comprehension. Complete the following on the basis of the information given in the text:

1. Under the supply contract between an exporter and an
overseas buyer, a loan agreement is .... between ......

2. When the exporter presents documentation specified in
the loan agreement, he ......

3. The conditions to be met by the exporter before finance is
made available for..... him are........

4. The loan agreement also includes provisions for firstly
..... secondly .... thirdly

5. Ал overseas buyer can be provided with. in support of

.... or with ...... to cover.......

6. A number of different requirements of capital goods not
related to a specific project can be financed by....

7. The general purpose lines of credit usually provides fi­
nance for the period of.. with a minimum contract value

of......

8. To negotiate credit insurance UK and overseas exporters
can turn to....... which also provides......

9. If export turnover is sufficiently large, an exporter can
shift the problems of collecting the payment for completed
orders to an ..... for example: ......

10. If Eurocurrency loans for the financing of down payments

by buyers for large projects abroad are required, appli­
cations should be.... to one of...... for example: ......

11. An exporter of a large item of capital equipment can find

the services of a ..... beneficial in obtaining ..... and

.... on the conditions of........ In this case he can be

assfssted by .....

12. Midland Bank Forward Trust Group is a member of two

III

Test. Fill in the missing words:

Lines of credit are covered by ECGD Buyer Credit Guar­
antees. They allow UK banks to make... available at pref­
erential ..... to overseas borrowers to..... the purchase of

a wide range of....... goods and services from various UK

..... with contract values sometimes as low as ....... being

covered. A general purpose line of credit can be used for a

..... of types of contract with various..... in the country of

import. A project line of credit is established for a..... project

but perhaps involving many different .....

Under the line of...... arrangement the exporter receives

payment...... delivery of goods or...... of services and has

in effect a cash......

202

Active Vocabulary:

convertible

foreign exchange market

forward exchange market

forward rate

spot rate at a premium

at a discount commission fee

— конвертируемый

— внешний валютный рынок

— форвардный валютный
рынок

— курс по срочной сделке,
форвардный курс

— курс но кассовым сделкам

— с премией; выше номинала;
выше паритета

— со скидкой, ниже номинала

— комиссионный сбор

an advantage over competitors unwilling to do likewise. If an exporter uses credit finance, the cost of borrowing may be cheaper in a foreign currency than in sterling.

However, an exporter must consider carefully the conse­quences of any invoicing contract in a buyer's currency. Pay­ment of a foreign currency leaves an exporter open to an exchange risk, e.g. an exporter may not receive full domes­tic currency value for an order if a buyer's currency has de­preciated during the contract period. Moreover, it is unwise to accept payment in a currency that is not freely convertible on the foreign exchange market. The exporter may end up with blocked accounts or with funds saleable only at a con­siderable discount.

Forward exchange market. An exporter can protect against any loss caused by fluctuating currencies during the sales contract period by taking out a forward exchange con­tract with a UK bank.

The exporter, invoicing a buyer in a foreign currency for payment at an agreed future date, sells those expected re­ceipts to a bank in advance (i.e. forward) of the due dale of payment. The bank agrees to buy at a predetermined for­ward rale of exchange which varies according to the time of future delivery, e.g. one, three or six months, or even longer. No money is exchanged at the time the forward contract is made, bul under its terms the exporter is guaranteed a cer­tain amount of domestic currency in place of Ihe foreign cur­rency sales proceeds, whatever fluctuations in the exchange-rale may take place between invoicing and payment by the buyer.

The forward rale varies from the spot rale, i.e. Ihe rate the bank is prepared to pay for foreign currency at any mo­ment of lime. The forward rale for selling Ihe foreign cur­rency may be al a premium, i.e. il exchanges for more do­mestic currency lhan Ihe spol rale, or il may be al a discount if it exchanges for less. The difference between spol and for­ward rales is determined by market forces — the most impor-

204

205

tant of which is the difference in the prevailing interest rates being paid by banks f</r fixed deposits of the two currencies concerned.

A fixed forward contract binds an exporter to delivering the required foreign currency to the bank on the date of ma­turity of the exchange contract. If the buyer defaults on pay­ment or government controls are imposed on the currency payment, the exporter must still deliver the required for­eign currency amount. The exporter must purchase the re­quired amount of currency at the spot rate to close the for­ward contract. This could be expensive, since the rate of exchange used will be that applicable at the lime of the spot purchase. However, if the delivery of the currency is de­layed beyond the maturity date then the forward exchange contract can be extended — but possibly at some extra cost, depending on the forward rate for this additional period.

An exporter may still use forward exchange even when the date of payment by a buyer is in doubt, by entering into an option contract. Under this contract the exporter deliv­ers the required amount of currency at a fixed rate at any chosen time between two agreed dates.

Foreign currency borrowing.It is increasingly common for many exporters to raise finance in foreign currency. An ex­porter can eliminate exchange risk by taking a loan in the same currency as that to be paid by an overseas buyer, so that fluctuations in the exchange rate cannot affect the exporter's expected receipts from the buyer. Moreover, bor­rowing in a foreign currency may be cheaper than borrowing in sterling, depending on the relative interest rates prevail­ing.

Bills drawn in a foreign currency can usually be negotiated by a UK bank in a similar way to sterling bills. Foreign cur­rency loans can help the exporter develop international busi­ness, whether for capital expenditure at home, overseas ac­quisition or for export credit, including front-end finance.

206

Various types of Eurocurrency loans are available to fi­nance export business. They include fixed-rale loans where borrowing costs are predetermined, or floating-rate loans where Ihe rale varies periodically according lo market rates. As menlioned previously ECGD can provide guarantees for foreign currency export contracls and large projects.

Currency accounts.If an exporter has a continual flow of international business it may be preferable to open accounts in the currencies of the sales proceeds, instead of converling all of them into domestic currency.

The various balances can then be used lo meel any ex­penses incurred in those currencies, while reducing com­mission fees incurred from dealings in the foreign exchange market.

I Comprehension.Answer Ihe following questions:

1. Why is it becoming more popular for exporters to accept
payment for their orders in the currency used by their
foreign buyers? List all Ihe five reasons.

2. What risk does any invoicing contract in a buyer's cur­
rency involve?

3. Whal protects an exporter againsl any loss caused by fluc-

tuating currencies?

4. What is the exporter guaranteed under a forward ex­
change contract?

5. What is the spot rale?

6. What is the difference between spot and forward rates
delermined by?

7. Whal is an exporter obliged lo do under a fixed forward
contract?

8. In what cases would entering into an oplion conlracl be
justified?

207

9. Why is raising finance in foreign currency becoming popu-

lar for many exporters?

10. What types of Eurocurrency loans are available to fi­
nance export trade?

11. When is it advisable for the exporter to open a foreign
currency account? Why?

II

Comprehension.Complete the following on the basis of the information given in the text:

1. Some goods traded internationally are traditionally.....

2. The fluctuating nature of the rates of exchange of major
trading currencies involves some .... both for ..... and

3. If the contract currency depreciates before final payment,
the buyer .......

4. If the contract currency is upvalued before final payment,
the buyer is bound to.......

5. Another reason for concluding export contracts in other
currencies than in sterling is that ......

6. To price a contract in a currency that is not freely convert-

ible on the foreign exchange markets is ._ because the

accounts may.... and the funds.......

7. The forward rate for selling the foreign currency is at a
premium if the bank......

8. The forward rate for selling the foreign currency is at a
discount if the bank......

9. Under a fixed forward contract the exporter must deliver
the required foreign currency to the bank on maturity of
the exchange contract even if the buyer should.....

10. There is no difference in negotiating by banks bills..

and those .....

11. Underlloating-rate loans borrowing costs.... according

to ......

Ill

Study the examples of forward exchange, contracts and comment on the exporters gain and loss.

EXAMPLE OF FORWARD EXCHANGE CONTRACTS WHERE THE EXPORTER IS EARNING DUTCH CUR­RENCY EXPECTED IN THREE MONTHS TIME

a) Dutch guilders

Guilders 10,000 to be received

Spot rale of exchange (bank's buying rale)

Premium for 3 months forward (fixed) 2c

deduct from rate

Forward rate to be used

Guilders 10,000 a 5.00

Guilders 10,000 a 4.98

Exporter's gain

(equal to 1.6 per cent per annum)

b) Dutch guilders

Guilders 10,000 to be received

Spot rate of exchange (bank's buying rale)

Discount for 3 months forward Ic - add to rale

Forward rate to be used Guilders 10,000 a 5.00 Guilders 10,000 a 5.01 Exporter's loss (equal to 0.80 per cent per annum)

208

209

EXAMPLES OF FORWARD EXCHANGE CONTRACT WHERE A US EXPORTER IS EARNING GERMAN CUR­RENCY EXPECTED IN 3 MONTHS TIME

A. Deutschemarks al a premium

10,000 Deutschemarks to be received.........................

Spot rateof exchange (i.e. bank's buying rate) to$= 2.50

Premium for 3 months forward (fixed)

bu I deduct 5pf from rale........................................... = 0.05

Forward rate to be used............................................................... 2.45

Ueutschemarksl(),00()a2.50....................................... = $4000.00

DculschemarkslO,OOOa2.45...................................... = $4081.63

Exporter's gain (equal to 8.16 per cent per annum) = $81.63

B. Deutschemarks al a discount

Deutschemarks 10,000 to be received....................

Spot rate of exchange (i.e. bank's buying rate)

lo$...

Discoun I for 3 mon Ihs forward — add 3 pf to rate....

Forward rale to be used................................................

DeulschemarkslO,OOOa2.50 Deutschemarks 10,000 a 2.53 Exporter's loss (equal Io4.74 percent per annum)

man firm which wishes lo be paid in ils own ... , in which

case you must convert..... inlo........ in order io pay a Ger­
man supplier.

To prolect yourself against ...... risk you can take out a

exchange contract with an international bank for the

amount of the particular..... currency expected from a sale.

That means if you are selling goods lo a German customer

with the price...... in Deutschemarks, you agree lo sell Ihose

marks lo Ihe bank'on Ihe dale coinciding with Ihc ...... of

expecled paymenl by Ihe German buyer. In relurn you will

receive from Ihe..... a fixed amounl in your...... currency

on the exchange dale.

The rale for Ihe forward ....... contract varies depending

on the period of lime you require lo deliver Ihc Deutsche­
marks. Whatever the period, Ihe....... of exchange is fixed

by Ihe ..... conlracl, under which you commit yourself to

deliver lo the bank al some agreed... dale a ccrlain amounl

of Deulschemarks in ....... for you currency.

IV

Test. Fill in the missing words:

Often buyers prefer lo be invoiced in their own.... and

by agreeing lo this you may achieve more ..... If you are

operating^ the USA and sell goods lo a German buyer, you

may be paid in ...... You musl Ihcn convert the ...... into

..... on the foreign exchange market. You may also be pur­
chasing raw malerials or semi-processed goods from a Gcr-

210