COMPOUNDS

A compound is a unit of vocabulary which consists of more than one lexical stem functioning as a single item, with its own meaning and grammar.186 For example, secondhand, waterbike; солнцестояние, водонепроницаемый.

Compounds exist in both English and Russian, but they are comparatively predominant in English, where compounds are found not only among nouns and adjectives, but also among verbs (to ill-use) and adverbs (crosslegs).

English compounds are formed mostly in the agglutinative way, that is by joining directly two or more stems: two-year-old, chewing-gum, doorknob, widespread, earthquake. Unfortunately, orthography is not a foolproof criterion to signal a compound. The parts of a word may be linked by a hyphen (fire-light), written without a space (moonlight), or stand separately (candle light)187. Note that American English uses fewer hyphens than does British English:188 cell yell (loud talking into a cellular telephone), ego wall (wall with framed awards, diplomas, and pictures of a person with famous people).

In Russian compounds, stems are mostly joined by a linking vowel, -e- or –o-: пароход, дикорастущий, землемер, кораблестроение. An English compound may also have (though not very often) a linking element, mostly the consonant –s- (sportsman, statesman, spokesman), and occasionally vowels –o-, --a-, -i- (washomat, sportsarama, pluridimensional)189 – though the cases with the linking vowel belong rather to stem reduction than to stem composition.

It is typical of English to make a compound out of a phrase, with subordinate links between the elements: son-in-law, jack-of-all-trades, day-to-day (rare in Russian: сумасшедший); coordinate links: hide-and-seek (not as usual in English as in Russian; e.g., научно-технический, scientific and technological). The tendency towards compounds is so strong in English that it is not infrequent that we come across compounds formed out of clauses: They say that what’s-his-name fellow has been staying at her house ever since he came to town. (Caldwell).

A lot of compounds used in speech are occasional coinages, not fixed by dictionaries. For example, this sentence from U. Sinclair: The baby was eight months old, and he was at the crawling stage and the looking-about stage and the putting-things-into-his-mouth stage.

To translate a new compound, especially one not included in the dictionary, it is necessary toanalyze syntactic relations between the compound elements and their meanings. These relations may be as follows:

· predicate relations, i.e. subject to verb: earthquake (the earth quakes), headache; землетрясение, снегопад;

· object relations, i.e. verb to object: scarecrow (scares crows), sightseeing; водомер, бракодел;

· attribute relations: goldfish, postman; чернозём, голубоглазый;

· adverbial relations: much-improved (improved a lot), night-flying (flying at night); вышеупомянутый, долгоиграющий.

When the meaning and grammatical relations of the compound elements are clear, it is possible to look for a proper means of translation. It may be

Ø another compound: tax-payer – налогоплательщик; law-abiding – законопослушный;

Ø analogue: hangman – палач; homesick – ностальгический; childcare – детский сад; air-headed – ветер в голове;

Ø calque: waterbike – водный мотоцикл; breathtaking – захватывающий дыхание. Compounds with object and adverbial relations between the elements are often translated in the reverted linear order: tax-free – свободный от налогов; far-advanced – продвинутый вперед; home-grown vegetables – овощи, выращенные дома;

Ø half-calque: pop-star – поп-звезда; surfspeak – язык серфистов;

Ø transcription or transliteration: popcorn – попкорн; videobusiness – видеобизнес; audioplayer – аудиоплейер. This technique is normally employed when a word, denoting a piece of realia, is borrowed into the target language;

Ø explication and extension: flypaper – липкая лента от мух; gravity-challenged – не способный прыгнуть высоко;

Ø substitution of one or both of the components: popcorn – воздушная кукуруза; blackboard – классная доска; пылесос – vacuum cleaner. It is important that a translator not invent a new word, but use a standard word, fixed in the dictionary (it is of particular significance in translating terms).