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CONCLUSIONThe present book has treated the specific features of the English word as a structure, both on the morphemic and semantic levels, and dealt with the English vocabulary as an adaptive system of contrasting and interrelated elements. The presentation of these is conceived on the basis of the theory of oppositions as initiated by N.S. Trubetzkoy and is described, partly at least, in set-theoretical terms. The classical book on the theory of oppositions is the posthumous treatise by N.S. Trubetzkoy “Grundzuge der Phonologie”. The full significance and value of this work are now being realised and appreciated both in Soviet linguistics and abroad. Nevertheless, application of the theory of oppositions to linguistic analysis on levels other than that of phonology is far from being complete. One need hardly say that the present volume does not attempt to be definitive in its treatment of oppositions for lexicological description: quite considerable amount of research has already been done in some directions and very little in many others. Many points remain to be elucidated by future patient study and by collecting reliable factual evidence on which more general conclusions may then be built. The special interest of contemporary science in methods of linguistic research extends over a period of about thirty years. The present status of principles and techniques in lexicology, although still far from satisfactory, shows considerable progress and an intense development. The main procedures in use have been described in connection with the subject-matter they serve to investigate. They are the componential analysis, the contextological and valency analysis, analysis into immediate constituents, explanatory transformations based on dictionary definitions and different types of semantic oppositions helping to describe the vocabulary system. Each of these techniques viewed separately has its limitations but taken together they complete one another, so that each successive procedure may prove helpful where the previous one has failed. We have considered these devices time and again in discussing separate aspects of the vocabulary system. All these are formalised methods in the sense that they replace the original words in the linguistic material sampled for analysis by symbols that can be discussed without reference to the particular elements they stand for, and then state precise rules for the combination and transformation of formulas thus obtained. It must be emphatically stressed that although the synchronic and diachronic treatments are set apart, and the focal point of interest is the present state of the English vocabulary, these two aspects are not divorced, and the constant development of the whole system is always kept in mind. It must be fully realised that the separation of the two aspects is only an abstraction necessary for heuristic purposes. Secondly, structural methods demand a rigorous separation of levels and a study of language as an autonomous system. This dogmatic thesis placed a burden upon research. In present-day Soviet linguistics the interrelation between different levels as well as between language and extralinguistic reality is taken as all-important. Finally, what is especially important, language is a social phenomenon, the language of any society is an integral part of the culture and social life of this society, words recognised within the vocabulary of the language are that part of the language on which the influence of extra-linguistic factors tells in the first place. Much of the semantic incommensurability that exists between languages can be accounted for in terms of social and cultural differences. Sociolinguistics which is now making great progress is concerned with linguistic differences and with the actual performances of individuals as members of specific speech communities. It concentrates on the correlation of linguistic features with values and attitudes in social life with the status of speakers and listeners in social network. It deals with coexistence in the same individual or the same group of speakers of several linguistic codes, resorted to according to language-use conventions of society, i.e. a more prestigious formal and conservative code is used for official purposes, the other for spontaneous informal conversation. As sociolinguistics is still in its infancy it was possible to include in the present book only a few glimpses of this new branch. Recent years in” Soviet linguistics have undoubtedly seen great progress in lexicology coming from various schools with various aims and methods. It is outside the scope of the present book to reflect them all, it is to be hoped, however, that the student will watch current literature and retrieve the necessary information on points that will interest him. The modern methods of vocabulary study have emerged from practical concerns, especially those of foreign language teaching, dictionary-making, and recently, from the needs of machine translation and information retrieval. Improvements and expansion in foreign language teaching called forth a new co-operation between didactics and linguistics. In this connection it is well to remember that many eminent linguists devoted a great deal of attention to problems of teaching languages: L.V. Shcherba, L. Bloomfield, Ch. Fries, O. Jespersen, E. Nida wrote monographs on these problems. There has been a considerable growth of activity in the field of mathematical linguistics. Much of this is connected with computer-aided linguistics. We have attempted to show the usefulness of set-theoretical concepts for the study of vocabulary. We must be on our guard, however, against the idea that an attachment of mathematical symbols and operations to linguistics material will by itself make the statements about it more scientific. The introduction of mathematical apparatus into linguistics is justified only when it is based on a thorough comprehension of linguistic problems involved. Otherwise an indiscriminate introduction of mathematical procedures will be purely ornamental and may even lead to the generation of meaningless results. Even more important and promising, perhaps, is the fact that the penetration of mathematical methods, whether from the theory of sets, adaptive system theory, symbolic logic or mathematical statistics, leads to a more rigorous general approach. We are now hopeful that with the help of cautious and responsible application of some developments in system theory a genuinely scientific lexicology can come into being that will be useful in different branches of applied linguistics. A fresh departure in the study of language including its vocabulary is the communicative linguistics in which the pragmatic rather than structural approach is used. This new trend relates vocabulary characteristics not only to meanings but to uses and situations and the degree of their formality. Pragmatics concerned with the relations between signs and expressions and their users is steadily gathering momentum penetrating all branches of linguistics. At present, however, this promising trend has hardly begun to take shape. In more than ten years that have passed since the second edition of this book went to press, the problems of English lexicology have been investigated in a tremendous number of publications. Bringing the bibliography up to date keeping the same degree of comprehensiveness without a great increase in bulk proved impossible. Our debt to numerous works of scholarship had been acknowledged in copious notes and references of the previous editions. Here a basically different approach was chosen: bibliographical footnotes were drastically reduced and the selective list gathered below includes books especially recommended as further reading. An attempt is made to take account of modern lexicological theory as developed in the last decade and also to show the survival of basic studies translated, updated and published many years after their first edition. (See, for instance, works by K. Baldinger, M. Bréal, O. Jespersen.) RECOMMENDED READING Агамджанова В. И. Контекстуальная избыточность лексического значения слова. Рига, 1977. Азнаурова Э. С. Очерки по стилистике слова. Ташкент, 1973. Акуленко В. В. Вопросы интернационализации словарного состава языка. Харьков, 1972. Амосова Н. Н. Этимологические основы словарного состава современного английского языка. М., 1956. Амосова Н. Н. Основы английской фразеологии. Л., 1963. Амосова Н. Н. Английская контекстология. Л., 1968. (На англ. яз.). Апресян Ю. Д. Лексическая семантика. Синонимические средства языка. М. 1974. Арнольд И. В. Лексикология современного английского языка. М., 1959. Арнольд И. В. Семантическая структура слова в современном английском языке и методы ее исследования. Л., 1966. Арнольд И. В. Стилистика современного английского языка: Стилистика декодирования. 2-е изд., перераб. Л., 1981. Аспекты семантических исследований: Сборник. М., 1980. Беляева Т. М., Потапова И. А. Английский язык за пределами Англии. Л., 1971. Беляева Т. М. Словообразовательная валентность глагольных основ в английском языке. М., 1979. Бенвенист Э. Общая лингвистика/Пер. с англ. М., 1977. Блумфилд Л. Язык/Пер. с англ. М., 1968. Бондарко А. В. Грамматические категории и контекст. Л., 1971. Бондарко А. В. Грамматическое значение и смысл. Л., 1978. Борисов В. В. Аббревиация и акронимы. М., 1972. Виноградов В. В. Об основных типах фразеологических единиц в русском языке // Виноградов В. В. Лексикология и лексикография: Избранные труды. М., 1977. Виноградов В. В. Основные типы лексических значений слова // Виноградов В. В. Лексикология и лексикография: Избранные труды. М., 1977. Вольф E. М. Грамматика и семантика прилагательного. М., 1978. Вольф E. М. Функциональная семантика оценки. М., 1985. Гулыга E. В., Шендельс E. И. Грамматико-лексические поля в современном немецком языке. М., 1969. Есперсен О. Философия грамматики/Пер. с англ. М., 1958. Звегинцев В. А. Семасиология. М., 1957. Звегинцев В. А. История языкознания XIX—XX вв. в очерках и извлечениях. М., 1965. Иванова И. П., Бурлакова В. В., Почепцов Г. Г. Теоретическая грамматика современного английского языка. М., 1981. Ильиш Б. А. Строй современного английского языка. 3-е изд. Л., 1971. Караулов Ю. Н. Общая и русская идеография. М., 1976. Караулов Ю. Н. Лингвистическое конструирование и тезаурус литературного языка. М., 1981. Касарес X. Введение в современную лексикографию/Пер. с исп. М., 1958. Кацнельсон С. Д. Типология языка и речевое мышление. Л., 1972. Кащеева М. А., Потапова И. А., Тюрина Н. С. Практикум по английской лексикологии. Л., 1974. Котелова Н. 3. Значение слова и его сочетаемость. Л., 1975. Кубрякова Е. С. Основы морфологического анализа. М., 1974. Кубрякова Е. С. Типы языковых значений. Семантика производного слова. М., 1981. Кузнецова А. И. Понятие семантической системы языка и методы ее исследования. М., 1963. Кунин А. В. Английская лексикология. М., 1940. (На англ. яз.). Кунин А. В. Английская фразеология. М., 1970. Кунин А. В. Фразеология современного английского языка. М., 1972. Лайонз Дж. Введение в теоретическую лингвистику/Пер. с англ. М., 1978. Лотте Д. С. Вопросы заимствования и упорядочения иноязычных терминов и терминоэлементов. М., 1982. Медникова Э. М. Значение слова и методы его описания. М., 1974. Медникова Э. М. Практикум полексикологии английского языка. М., 1978. (На англ. яз.). Мешков О. Д. Словообразование современного английского языка. М., 1976. Никитин М. В. Лексическое значение слова. М., 1983. Новиков Л. А. Семантика русского языка. М., 1982. Пауль Г. Принципы истории языка/Пер. с нем. М., 1960. Потебня А. А. Эстетика и поэтика. М., 1977. Пражский лингвистический кружок: Сб. статей/Сост., ред. и предисл. Н. А. Кондрашова. М., 1967. Принципы и методы семантических исследований. Сборник. М., 1976. Резинкина Н. М. Развитие языка английской научной литературы. М., 1978. Рейман Е. А. Английские предлоги. Значения и функции. Л., 1982. Селиверстова О. Н. Компонентный анализ многозначных слов. М., 1975. Сепир Э. Язык/Пер. с англ. М.-Л., 1934. Смирницкий А. И. Лексикология английского языка. М., 1956. Солнцев В. М. Язык как системно-структурное образование. М., 1971. Соссюр Ф. де. Труды по языкознанию/Пер. с фр. М., 1977. Степанов Ю. С. Методы и принципы современной лингвистики. М., 1975. Степанов Ю. С. Основы общего языкознания. М., 1975. Степанов Ю. С. Имена. Предикаты. Предложения. М., 1981. Степанова М. Д. Методы синхронного анализа лексики. М., 1968. Степанова М. Д. Теория валентности и валентностный анализ. М., 1973. Стернин И. А. Проблемы анализа структуры значения слова. Воронеж, 1979. Ступин Л. П. Словари современного английского языка. Л., 1973. Суперанская А. В. Общая теория имени собственного. М., 1973. Трубецкой Н. С. Основы фонологии. М., 1960. Уфимцева А. А. Слово в лексической системе языка. М., 1968. Уфимцева А. А. Типы словесных знаков. М., 1974. Уфимцева А. А. Лексическое значение. М., 1986. Хидекель С. С. и др. Английская лексикология в выдержках и извлечениях. Л., 1969. (На англ. яз.). Чейф У. Л. Значение и структура языка/Пер. с англ. М., 1975. Шаховский В. И. Эмотивный компонент значения и методы его описания. Волгоград, 1983. Швейцер А. Д. Литературный английский язык в США и в Англии. М., 1971. Швейцер А. Д. Современная социолингвистика: теория, проблемы, методы. М., 1976. Шехтман Н. А. Словари минимумы и учебные тезаурусы // Иностр. яз. в школе. 1982, № 5. Шмелев Д. Н. Проблемы семантического анализа лексики. М., 1973. Щур Г. С. Теория поля в лингвистике. М., 1974. Языковая номинация: Общие вопросы. М., 1976. Языковая номинация: Виды наименований. М., 1977. Antal, Laszlo. Questions of Meaning. The Hague, 1963. Baldinger, Kurt. Die Semasiologie. Versuch eines Überblicks. Berlin, 1957/ Transl. as “Semantic Theory: Towards a Modern Semantic”. Oxford, 1980. Baugh А.С. and Cable T. A History of the English Language. 3rd ed. London, 1978. Block, Bernard and Trager, G. Outline of Linguistic Analysis. Baltimore, 1942. Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. N. Y., 1935. Bolinger, Dwight. Meaning and Form. London, 1977. Bolinger, Dwight. Aspects of Language. 3rd ed. N. Y., 1981. Bréal, Michel. Essai de sémantique. Paris, 1897 // Transl. as “Semantics: Studies in the Science of Meaning”. N. Y., 1964. Chafe, Wallace L. Meaning and the Structure of Language. Chicago — London, 1970. Firth, John R. Papers in Linguistics 1934-1951. London, 1951. Fries, Charles С The Structure of English. N. Y., 1953. Ginzburg R. S. et al. A Course in Modern English Lexicology. M., 1979. Greenough, James B. and Kitteredge, George L. Words and their Ways in English Speech. London — New York, 1961. Guiraud, Pierre. Problèmes et méthodes de la statistique linguistique. Paris, 1959. Halliday M. A. K., Mclntosh A. and Strevens P.D. The Linguistic Science and Language Teaching. London, 1964. Halliday M. A. K. and Hasan R. Cohesion in English. London, 1976. Harris, Zellig S. Methods in Structural Linguistics. Chicago, 1952/Reprinted as “Structural Linguistics", 1961. Hockett, Charles. A Course in Modern Linguistics. N. Y., 1958. Jespersen, Otto. Growth and Structure of the English Language. Oxford, 1982. (First publ. in 1905.) Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Copenhagen, 1942. Part VI. Koziol H. Handbuch der englischen Wortbildungslehre. Heidelberg, 1937. Koziol H. Grundziige der englischen Semantik. Vienna, 1969. Kronasser H. Handbuch der Semasiologie. Heidelberg, 1952. Leech, Geoffrey N. English in Advertising. London, 1966. Leech, Geoffrey N. Towards a Semantic Description of English. London, 1969. Leech, Geoffrey N. Meaning and the English Verb. London, 1971. Leech, Geoffrey N. Semantics. Penguin Books, 1974. Leech, Geoffrey N., Deuchar M. and Hoggnuradd R. English Grammar for Today. A New Introduction. London, 1982. Leech, Geoffrey N. Principles of Pragmatics. London, 1985. Lehnart M. Morphem, Wort und Satz im Englischen. Berlin, 1969. Lehrer A. Semantic Fields and Lexical Structure. Amsterdam — London, 1974. Leisi, Ernst. Das heutige Englisch. Wesenzuge und Probleme. Heidelberg, 1955. Leisi, Ernst. Der Wortinhalt. Seine Struktur im Deutschen und Englischen. 2 Aufl. Heidelberg, 1961. Leith, Dick. A Social History of English. London, 1983. Lyons, John. Semantics. London—Cambridge, 1979. Vols. 1 and 2. Lyons, John. Language and Linguistics: an Introduction. Cambridge, 1981. Marchand H. The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation. Wiesbaden, 1960. McKnight С. English Words and their Background. New York — London, 1931. Nida, Eugene. Morphology, the Descriptive Analysis of Words. Michigan, 1946. Nida, Eugene. Componential Analysis of Meaning. An Introduction to Semantic Structures. The Hague —Paris, 1975. Ogden C. K., Richards I. A. The Meaning of Meaning. N. Y., 1970. (First publ. in 1923.) Palmer H. Grammar of English Words. London, 1961. Palmer F. Semantics. A New Outline/Pref. and commentaries by M. V. Nikitin. M., 1982. Partridge, Eric. Slang To-day and Yesterday. London, 1933. Potter S. Modern Linguistics. London, 1957. Quirk, Randolph. The English Language and Images of Matter. London, 1972. Quirk, Randolph, Greenbaum, Sidney, Leech, Geoffrey and Svartvik, Ian. A Grammar of Contemporary English. New York—London, 1974. Schlauch, Margaret. The English Language in Modern Times. Warszawa, 1965. Schmidt W. Lexikalische und aktuelle Bedeutung. Berlin, 1963. Sergeantson M. A History of Foreign Words in English. London, 1935. Sheard, John. The Words We Use. N. Y., 1954. Sörensen H. Word-Classes in Modern English with Special Reference to Proper Names: With an Introductory Theory of Grammar, Meaning and Reference. Copenhagen, 1958. Turner J. The English Language in Australia and New Zealand. London, 1972. Ullmann St. Words and their Use. London, 1951. Ullmann St. The Principles of Semantics. Glasgow, 1959. Ullmann St. Semantics: An Introduction to the Science of Meaning. Oxford, 1962. Universals of Language/Ed. by J. Greenberg. Cambridge, Mass., 1961. Vesnik D. and Khidekel S. Exercises in Modern English Wordbuilding. M., 1964. DICTIONARIES Англо-русский синонимический словарь/Под рук. А. И. Розенмана и Ю. Д. Апресяна. М., 1979. Большой англо-русский словарь: В 2-х т./Под общим рук. И. Р. Гальперина. 2-е изд., испр. М., 1979. Дополнение к Большому англо-русскому словарю/Под общим рук. И. Р. Гальперина. М., 1981. Великобритания: Лингвострановедческий словарь/Под ред. Е. Ф. Рогова. М., 1978. Кунин А. В. Англо-русский фразеологический словарь. В 2-х т. 3-е изд., испр. М., 1967. Мюллер В. К. Англо-русский словарь.. 17-е изд., перераб. М., 1978.
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