The Temples in Ukraine

Church construction takes its origin from the adoption and spreading of Christianity. Tendencies in the development of church structures depended to some extent on the material chosen. Most likely, at the initial stage churches were traditionally built of wood in Ukraine-Rus. Somewhat later, in particular after the official introduction of Christianity, stone churches appeared. The Church of the Tithes is considered the first known masonry church in Ukraine-Rus. To build it Prince Volodymyr invited Greek masters. The construction of the church in honour of the Holy Mother of God began in 989 and in 996 the church was consecrated. It is difficult to judge of the architectural aspect of the church because during the siege of Kyiv by Mongol-Tartars in 1240 the church collapsed. The notion of the appearance of the Church of the Tithes may be based to some extent on other Kyivan churches dating from the same historical period.

Church construction in the Kyivan Rus comprises three periods of development. The first one covers the late tenth-first half of the eleventh centuries. At that time the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv and the Cathedral of the Transfiguration of the Saviour in Chernihiv were built.

The next period, the second half of the eleventh - early twelfth centuries, saw active church building in Kyiv: the Dormition Cathedral of the Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra, the Gate Church of the Trinity, the Cathedral of the Archangel Michael in the Vydubytsky Monastery, and the Church of Our Saviour at Berestove.

The third period in the history of Old Rus masonry church architecture, the twelfth - early thirteenth centuries, is marked by the appearance of different stylistic trends in ecclesiastical construction. The churches that have survived to our time provide an opportunity to judge of typological, construction, technological, and architectural-artistic distinctions between Kyiv, Pereyaslav,

38.All Saints’ Church over the husbandry gate of the Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra.

Chernihiv, Volyn, and Halychyna schools. The Kyivan School is exemplified by St. George's Cathedral in Kaniv and St. Basil's Church in Ovruch. The Chernihiv School is represented by the Cathedral of St. Borys and St. Hlib, St. Elijah's Church, the Dormition Cathedral of the Yeletsky Monastery, St. Parasceve's Church. St. George's Chapel in Oster and the Dormition Cathedral in Volodymyr-Volynsky give an idea of the character of church construction in Pereyaslav and Volyn schools. The churches of St. Panteleimon in the village of Shevchenkove and St. Nicholas in Lviv have survived of the Halychyna School.

The structure of Old Rus churches is based on the cruciform system with three or five aisles that ensued from canons of Christian church and was adopted from Byzantine architecture. However, the volumetric-spatial and architectural-plastic solution of Old Rus churches is somewhat particular.

Ecclesiastical architecture of the first half of the eleventh century is characterised by construction of large five-aisled churches with a multi-tier system of domes with open galleries. Inside, over the narthex and side aisles, there were choir galleries whereto stairways of the side towers led. On the east side, churches had three or five apses.

In the latter half of the eleventh century, churches of Kyivan Rus were characterised by the diversity of planning and spatial solutions. A three-aisled, six-pier church with a single dome grew widespread. Churches structure became more defined by functional needs of church rituals.

In the twelfth - thirteenth centuries, along with six-pier cruciform structures, four-pier single-domed churches were popular as well. The parameters of churches diminished that can be explained by restricted economic possibilities of feudal property. The extant churches of the Kyivan Rus period indicate a high standard of stone construction. In the tenth - eleventh centuries, walls were made of natural stone and bricks (plinthoi) set in the lime mortar with additions of finely crushed bricks. In masonry, a layer of stone alternated with two or three layers of bricks. Masonry with "sunk" layers was also used, that is projecting and sunken layers of bricks alternated, the spaces being filled with the mortar. The nave was most often covered by cylindrical vaulting with a system of wall arches that rested on piers, cruciform in plan, and wall pilasters. A dome on pendentives surmounted the crossing. The roofing was made of lead sheets.

In the latter half of the eleventh century, regional building traditions became more pronounced, and local materials were widely used for church construction. Thus, deposits of clay in the vicinities of Kyiv and Chernihiv promoted ceramic production and, accordingly, brick construction prevailed. The character of masonry also changed, it became equal-layered with mortar-bonded joints. In olden Halych, hewn blocks of local limestone were used for church building.

A correlation between the shape of a structure and its constructive system is a characteristic feature of architectural-plastic expressiveness of masonry church structures. Olden builders skillfully used constructive, artistic and plastic qualities of materials. Peculiarities of masonry technique defined largely its decorative character. The horizontal division of walls by alternation of stone and brick layers, and projecting and "sunk" layers of masonry emphasised the monumentality of church structures. Decoration of wall surfaces was often enriched with meander bands, zigzags, crosses, and solar signs laid out of plinthoi. The plasticity of walls was also enhanced by niches, pilasters and arcature bands.

The interior of Kyivan Rus churches was given special attention. The system of paintings borrowed from Byzantium was adapted to local conditions. Mosaics covered walls of sanctuaries and central parts of the church. The rest of the interior was decorated with frescos. The murals that have survived in the St. Sophia Cathedral are of exceptionally high artistic value. We should mention primarily a huge mosaic representation of Christ Pantocrator in the central cupola of the cathedral and the Virgin Orans (5.5 metres in height) in the chancel. Only an artist of the highest talent could execute such perfect works. The complexity of mosaic technique should be taken into account as well. The masonry surface had to be smoothed with lime mortar. A future representation was made in contour lines on the second layer of plaster. Then small areas were covered with the third layer of plaster and small cubes of smalto stuck into the surface. Smalto was made by adding pigments to the melted glass. Then the mass was poured out in thin layers and, after hardening, chipped into small cubes. The colour palette of St. Sophia's mosaics is quite impressive, numbering more than 170 tints.

Fresco ornamentation and subject representations cover the vaults, the planes of blind arches and the walls of the St. Sophia Cathedral. Of special interest among the surviving frescos is the one representing the family of Prince Yaroslav the Wise. The process of fresco painting, i.e. painting on moist plaster, was rather complicated. The wall was first rough-plastered and then the second coating was applied. On this, the contour of the representation was traced. Then basic tones were applied and after that, several painters made more detailed work simultaneously on different parts of the wall. The work had to be done in one day because plaster hardened and it was impossible to paint on it. In the eleventh - early twelfth centuries other churches were also painted, in particular the Cathedral of the Transfiguration of the Saviour in Chernihiv, the Dormition Cathedral in the Pechersk Monastery and the Archangel Michael's Cathedral of the Golden Domes in Kyiv. The St. Sophia's frescos are distinguished for rich colouring, bright vividness, virtuoso lines and originality.

In the thirteenth century, Old Rus principalities weakened because of feudal strife could not repel the invasion of the Mongol-Tartars that delayed their economic and cultural development for a long time.

In the fourteenth - first half of the seventeenth centuries, on the devastated southern and southwest lands the Ukrainian people fought for independence against the Lithuanian and Polish feudal lords. At that time, under new historical conditions, the major features of the ecclesiastical construction were defined by the experience of masonry architecture of Kyivan Rus in combination with traditions of folk architecture.

The creative originality of regional schools can be traced in church architecture in Volyn, Halychyna, Podillya, and later Naddnipryanschyna and Northern Left-Bank Ukraine. Monasteries-fortresses sprang up everywhere. Churches built outside fortifications also acquired defence functions, like the Intercession Church-Fortress in the village of Sutkivtsi.

Certain changes developed in the volumetric-spatial treatment of stone and brick churches. Following the Kyivan Rus traditions of monumental construction (e.g., the cruciform, four-pier, three-aisled, five-domed Church of the Epiphany in Ostroh), new types of churches appeared as well, in particular a tripartite, one-aisled church with a vaulted or domed termination. The tripartite division of the plan made it possible to diversify the volumetric-spatial solution of structures. However, in general, the architecture of masonry churches in the fourteenth - early sixteenth centuries is rather limited in using the means of artistic expressiveness. The appearance of churches was defined, primarily, by the shapes and proportionality of volumes, their plasticity and organic blending of structures with surroundings.

In the sixteenth - first half of the seventeenth centuries, architecture of the Italian Renaissance exerted great influence on the development of ecclesiastical construction in Volyn, Podillia, and, especially, Halychyna. However, it was not a simple borrowing of stylistic peculiarities of the Renaissance. The creative reinterpretation of architectural and artistic devices of the new trend and their adaptation to local conditions made it possible to build such original structures as the Dormition Church and the Chapel of the Three Holy Hierarchs in Lviv. In their architecture, the order system was used and great attention was paid to the decorative-plastic treatment of details.

In general, Renaissance architecture contributed to the expansion of the range of devices and methods of architectural and artistic expression of church structures, to the perfection of stone treatment. At the same time, the Renaissance did not introduce major innovations in the development of the spatial structure of churches in Ukraine. Their architecture drew mainly on folk traditions. Folk understanding of spatial organisation of an architectural form based on the experience of wooden construction is represented best of all in church construction at the turn of the eighteenth century in Naddniprianschyna and Left-Bank Ukraine. The economic upsurge and successes of the Ukrainian people in the national-liberation struggle created there conditions for wide-scope building activities. Based on the previous experience of stone church architecture and folk wooden construction traditions, the principles and devices of an architectural-artistic trend, later called the Ukrainian Baroque, were formed and embodied in a number of churches which are impressive even today. Among them, there are such widely known monuments as the Church of All Saints in the Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra, St. George's Cathedral of the Vydubytsky Monastery in Kyiv, St. Catherine's Church in Chernihiv, the Intercession Cathedral in Kharkiv, and the Resurrection Church in Sumy.

At that time, in Ukraine, not only new churches were built in the Baroque style but earlier structures acquired corresponding features because of reconstruction. Thus, the St. Sophia and the Dormition Cathedrals in Kyiv were renewed stylistically, as well as the Dormition Cathedral of the Yeletsky Monastery in Chernihiv, and others.

Baroque architecture that defined the image-bearing and artistic characteristics of masonry churches of Ukraine in the late seventeenth - last quarter of the eighteenth centuries was under the marked influence of both Russian (Moscow and St. Petersburg) and West-European schools, which found its reflection in the plastic treatment of churches in Slobozhanshchyna, Naddniprianshchyna and Right-Bank Ukraine. Besides, expertise of professional architects became evident in church architecture of Ukraine at that period. Construction of many churches in the latter half of the seventeenth - eighteenth centuries is associated with the names of architects S. Kovnir, I. Hryhorovych-Barsky, J. G. Schadel, and B. Rastrelli.

At the initial stage of the establishment of Baroque architecture in Ukraine two trends of volumetric-spatial organisation of stone churches developed. The structure of churches of the first trend was adopted from folk wooden architecture. In plan, they were tri-, quinque- or nonapartite structures with three, five, or nine terminations creating a pyramidal composition of the entire volume of the church. Compartments were covered with a system of truncated vaults creating a stepped shape of the termination like in wooden churches. The transition in plan from the square to the octagon was effected by pendentives. The Church of All Saints in the Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra and St. George's Cathedral of the Vydubytsky Monastery belong to this type.

The spatial and plastic solution of some churches was influenced by architecture of the Moscow Baroque (Church of St. Nicholas of the Cossacks in Putyvl).

The planning-spatial structure of churches of the other trend followed traditions of Old Rus construction. In the process of refurbishment of Kyivan Rus structures, the experience of the past was assimilated and recreated in new historical conditions. The Trinity Cathedral in Chernihiv is a typical specimen of this small group. In spatial structure, it is a three-aisled, six-pier church with a dome over the crossing and four smaller domes arranged diagonally. Rather restrained decoration is organised by the order system and plastic treatment of apertures. There were no serious changes in the spatial organisation of churches in the mid-eighteenth century. Nevertheless, the outlines of their plans became more complicated, their architectural aspect bearing the mark of the architect's individuality: St. Andrew's Church in Kyiv (architect B. Rastrelli), the Cathedral of the Nativity of Our Lady in Kozelets (architect I. Hryhorovych-Barsky), St. George's Cathedral in Lviv (architect B. Meretyn).

With the activation of monastery construction the volumetric and spatial role of some sacral structures, bell towers in particular, became more pronounced. In the early eighteenth century a multi-tier bell tower came into being. High-rise compositions of such structures as the Great Bell Tower of the Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra or the bell tower of the Trinity Monastery in Chernihiv played an important part in completing these ensembles.

Church interiors of that time deserve special mention. The formation of the inner space of churches was determined by the spatial treatment of a structure.

In the interior decoration, a significant role was played by decorative art objects, murals and, especially, by iconostases. Following and developing artistic traditions of Kyivan Rus, masters of monumental church painting of the Baroque age enriched them thematically and compositionally; they renovated and established a new iconographic system of painting. Among the seventeenth-century church painting, the murals in the Church of Our Saviour at Berestove in Kyiv have been preserved rather well; they cover the vaults of the chancel and the walls of other parts of the church. Here, the novel approach to painting lies primarily in the plastic modelling of subject representation. In this connection, the figure of the Metropolitan Petro Mohyla depicted in one of the compositions deserves special attention.

Monumental paintings surviving in the Gate Church of the Trinity in the Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra were executed by artists of the Lavra icon-painting shop. They make a great impression by their dimensions and original artistic solution. The St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv and the Trinity Church in the Hustynya Monastery were painted at the same time.

Iconostasis is a unique phenomenon in Ukrainian church art of the seventeenth - eighteenth centuries. As a coherent architectural and artistic system, the iconostasis came through a complex road of evolution from the altar screen of Kyivan Rus times. The strict architectonic symmetrical system with a prescribed tier arrangement of icons is created by architectural elements, mostly columns and cornices covered with an intricate openwork carving.

Iconostases could differ in their parameters and the character of carvings, though their structure remained stable, typical, and obligatory for all churches. As a rule, the iconostasis had five tiers, and the order of icons was unchangeable. In the centre, the lower tier had the Holy Gates, to the north and south there from the images of Our Lady and of Christ were located. To the left and right of those images were the gates to the vestry and the diaconicum, and further - the patron icons. The Vernicle icon was situated over the Holy Gates.

The second, Feast, tier comprised twelve icons (The Nativity of Our Lady, The Presentation of the Virgin, The Nativity of Christ, The Epiphany, The Presentation of Christ in the Temple, The Annunciation, The Entry into Jerusalem, The Resurrection, The Ascension, The Pentecost, The Transfiguration, and The Dormition), six to the right and six to the left of The Last Supper that stood in the centre.

Over the Feast tier came the representations of the twelve apostles and the Deesis in the centre. The uppermost tier had icons of the twelve prophets, six on either side of the Virgin of the Sign in the centre, The Crucifixion with the Intercessors being above.

Despite the established scheme of the iconostasis organisation, church architects succeeded in synthesizing the arts of architecture, decorative plastics and painting, in creating unique, compositionally coherent images that impress us not only with the skill of their execution but enrich us spiritually. Among the outstanding artistic attainments of the Ukrainian people we can mention iconostases of the Dormition Cathedral of the Yeletsky Monastery in Chernihiv, the Church of the Transfiguration of the Saviour in the village of Velyki Sorochyntsi, St. Andrew's Church in Kyiv, the Cathedral of the Nativity of Our Lady in Kozelets, and St. Parasceve's Church in Lviv.

Architecture of masonry churches of the seventeenth - eighteenth centuries followed to some extent traditions of folk wooden architecture. Nevertheless, the construction of churches of wood based on the deep roots of folk traditions was also a widespread phenomenon in all regions of Ukraine at that period.

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