Pick up from the text the words that may serve as contextual synonyms to the following.

138 Read the passage below and memorize the names and meanings of the following devices.

A. Lexical stylistic devices (LD)

Lexical stylistic devices create verbal images. The verbal image is a pen-picture of a thing, person or idea expressed in a figurative way by words used in their contextual meaning.

An epithet [`epiθet] is a SD based on the interplay (взаимодействие) of emotive (emotional, expressive) and logical meaning of an attributive word or phrase used to characterize an object so as to give an individual perception and evaluation of some features or properties. (e.g. wild wind, heart-burning smile, animal panic, etc.) It differs from the logical attribute which is purely objective and non-evaluating (e.g. white snow, pale complexion). Epithets are classified semantically and structurally. Semantically, they are divided into associated with the noun following and unassociated with it. The former are those which point out to a feature which is essential to the objects they describe: the idea expressed in the epithet is to a certain extent inherent in the concept of the object. For example, ‘dark forest, careful attention’. The latter are attributed used to characterize an object by adding a feature not inherent in it. For example, ‘heartburning smile, voiceless sands’. The adjectives here impose a property on objects which is fitting only in the given circumstances. Structurally, epithets can be viewed from the angle of a) composition and b) distribution. Compositionally, they may be divided into simple, compound and phrase epithets. Simple epithets are ordinary adjectives (wild wind, loud ocean0. Compound epithets are built like compound adjectives ( heart-burning sigh). Phrase epithets: a phrase and even a whole sentence may become an epithet if it is used attributively. But unlike simple and compound epithets which can be used both in pre- and post position, phrase epithets are always placed before the nouns they refer to(Freddie was standing in front of the fireplace with a ‘well-that’s-the-story-what-are-we-going-to-do-about-it air… ). Reversed epithet is composed of two nouns linked in an of-phrase (the shadow of a smile, a genius of an actor). From the point of view of the distribution of the epithets in the sentence, the first model to be pointed out is the string epithet which gives a many-sided depiction of an object (a plump, rosy-cheeked, wholesome, apple-faced young woman). Transferred epithets are those which describe the state of a human being but refer to an animate object (sleepless pillow, unbreakfasted morning).

A simile[`simili] is an expressed imaginative comparison based on the likeness of two subjects or ideas belonging to different classes. Comparison is established by a) link-words as, like (e.g. He has always been as live as a bird); b) link-words as though, as if (e.g. He looked as if he had been tortured); lexical means to express resemblance: to remind, to seem, to resemble (e.g. He reminded Julia of an old dog lying in the sun). Simile mustn’t be confused with logical comparison which brings together two things belonging to one class (e.g. The boy is as tall as his father.) Here boy and father belong to the same class of objects – human beings - and only one quality is being stressed to find the resemblance. In the previous example, he and dog belong to different classes of objects and only one secondary feature of an animal is attributed to a human being. In the English language, there is a long list of hackneyed (избитый) similes pointing out the analogy between the various qualities, states or actions of human beings and animals: busy as a bee, blind as a bt, to work like a horse, to sleep like a dog, to fly like a bird, thirsty as a camel, etc. They have becomes cliches.

A metaphor[`metəfə] – is a figure of speech that implies comparison between two unlike entities, as distinguished from simile, an explicit comparison signalled by the words “like” or “as.” The distinction is not simple. The metaphor makes a qualitative leap from a reasonable, perhaps prosaic comparison, to an identification or fusion of two objects, to make one new entity partaking of the characteristics of both.. “Time flies” is an ancient metaphorical expression. In the passage we have read “ men and girls came and went, floating among the whisperings and the champagne and the stars” float is a metaphor implying a comparison between people and birds or insects. Metaphors can be embodied in all the basic parts of speech – nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Metaphors may be simple or sustained (распространенный), genuine and trite(избитый) . A special kind of metaphor is personification. A simile can be compressed into a metaphor and every metaphor can be extended into a simile.

Personification - a special kind of metaphor in which human characteristics are attributed to an abstract quality, animal, or inanimate object. (e.g. “The Moon doth with delight / Look round her when the heavens are bare” (William Wordsworth); another is “Death lays his icy hand on kings”, James Shirley).

Irony – is a SD based on simultaneous realization of the meanings: the literal meaning is the opposite of the intended meaning, used in ridicule(насмешка) or humour. (e.g. Nice weather, isn’t it? [Said on a rainy day]). The word nice acquires a meaning quite the opposite to its primary dictionary meaning, that is ‘bad, unpleasant’.Irony must not be confused with humour, although they have very much in common. Humour always causes laughter .For example, in a sentence “How clever of you”, due to the intonation pattern, the word ‘clever’ conveys a sense opposite to its literal signification, the irony does not create a ludicrous (смешной) effect.It should be noted that irony is generally used to convey a negative meaning. Therefore, only positive concepts may be used in their logical dictionary meanings.

Metonymy - метонимия – is a SD in which the name of a thing is replaced by the name of an associated thing. For example, He bought a Ford. (a car). His pen is rather sharp (style of writing). The name is given not by way of comparison (as in metaphors), but by some association. Metonymy and metaphor differ in the way they are deciphered. In a metaphor, one image excludes the other, that is the metaphor ‘lamp’ in “The sky lamp of the night”, when deciphered means ‘the moon’ as we perceive only one object. Metonymy, while presenting one object to our mind, does not exclude the other (a Ford - a car; a sharp pen – a critical style of writing). Metonymy could be based on the following types of relation: a) a concrete thing is used instead of an abstract notion: The camp, the pulpit and the law for rich men’s sons are free; b) the container instead of the thing contained: The hall applauded; c) the relation of proximity: The round game table was boisterous and happy; d) the material instead of the thing made of it: The marble spoke; e) the instrument which the doer uses in performing the action instead of the action or the doer himself: As the sword is the worst argument that can be used, so should it be the last. Metonymy has the effect of creating concrete and vivid images in place of generalities, as in the substitution of a specific “grave” for the abstraction “death.” Metonymy is standard journalistic and headline practice as in the use of “city hall” for “municipal government,” the “White House” for the “President of the United States,” or “Kremlin” for the government of Russia. Metonymy is closely related to synecdoche [si'nekdqki], the naming of a part for the whole. For example, hired hands for workmen and less commonly a whole for the part as in society instead of high society.

Zeugma['zju:gmə] зевгма – is the use of the word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to two adjacent words in the context, the semantic relations being, on the one hand, literal, and, on the other, transferred (e.g. He took his pistol and his life.) The verb ‘took’ refers to both ‘pistol’ and ‘life’ and while ‘took his ‘pistol’ has a direct meaning, ‘(took) his life’ is transferred meaning ‘he killed himself’. Pun ( word play or a play on words) игра слов; каламбур - is another stylistic device based on the interaction of well-known meanings of a word or phrase. Sometimes it is difficult to draw a hard and fast distinction between zeugma and pun. The only reliable distinguishing feature is structural: zeugma is realization of two meanings with the help of a verb which is made to refer to different subjects or objects. Pun is more independent. There need not necessarily be a word in a sentence to which the pun-word refers. (e.g. You are too young to smoke [an old chimney says to a young one]). But still, like any other stylistic device, it depends on the context. For example, “Bow to the board,” said Bumble. Oliver brushed away two or three tears that were lingering in his eyes; and seeing no boardbut the table, fortunately bowed to that.” Here the humorous effect is achieved by the simultaneous realization of two meanings of the word ‘board’: 1) a group of people and 2) a flat piece of wood, plastic, card etc that you use for a particular purpose such as cutting things on, or for playing indoor games. Pun is frequently used in nursery rhymes, riddles and poems.

Oxymoron [‚Oksi`mOr@n] оксюморон– is a combination of two words (mostly an adjective and a noun or an adverb with an adjective) with opposite meanings (e.g. living death, pleasantly ugly face, sweet sorrow, low skyscraper). One word is an attribute the meaning of which is incongruous (несочетаемый) with the meaning of the word it modifies. In oxymoron the lofical meaning holds fast because there is no true word combination only the juxtaposition (непосредственное соседство) of two non-combinative words. But still there is a peculiar change in the meaning of the qualifying word. It assumes a new life in oxymoron, definitely indicative of assessing tendency in the writer’s mind.

Antonomasiais a SD in which some defining word or phrase is , as a rule, substituted for a person's proper name, normally popular or notorious (for example, “the Bard of Avon” for William Shakespeare, or Her husband is Othello, for a very jealous person). In fiction, antonomasia is used to give a character a proper name that defines or suggests a leading quality of that character. For example, Mr Know-All. Antonomasia is based on the interplay between the logical and nominal meaning of a word which should be realized in a word simultaneously. This device is mainly realized in written discourse, because sometimes capital letters are the only signals of this device.

Hyperbole -преувеличение, гипербола- is a deliberate overstatement [преувеличение] or exaggeration [гиперболизация] of a feature essential to the object for emphasis or comic effect. (e.g. He has written a barrel of stories). A variant of hyperbole is understatemen (преуменьшение)t in which smallness is exaggerated (e.g. A woman of a pocket size). Many hyperboles have become trite (избитый). They are used in daily speech without specific artistic effect (e.g. Haven’t seen you for ages. I’d give the world to see her, scared to death, a thousand pardons, etc.)

Periphrasis [pə`rIfrəsis] перифраз(а)- a roundabout (непрямой;; обходной )way used to name an object or phenomenon (e.g. fair sex (women), my better half (wife), a gentleman of a long robe ( a priest). As is seen, periphrasis uses a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter form of expression. In literature periphrasis is sometimes used for comic effect, There are three types of periphrasis:

a) logical periphrasis (e.g. instruments of destruction = weapons)

b) figurative periphrasis (e.g. to tie the knot = to get married)

c) euphemisms- эвфемизм– milder ways of naming something instead of the ones that seem rough or unpleasant (e.g. to pass away, to go home for ‘to die’, economical with the truth for ‘to lie’, etc.).

The cliche - is a word or expression which has lost its originality or effectiveness because it has been used too often ( e.g. rosy dreams of youth, rising expectations).

The proverb is a short, well-known, supposedly wise sayings, usually in simple language (e.g, Where there is a will, there is a way. God helps those who help themselves)

Epigram - is a short clever amusing saying or a poem. In most cases epigrams are witty statements coined by some individuals whose names we know. (e.g. O. Wilde: A diplomat is a person who can tell you to go to hell in such a way that you actually look forward to a trip.)

Quotationis a phrase or sentence taken from a work of literature or other piece of writing and repeated in order to prove the point or support an argument. They are

usually marked graphically. A quotation, when used by a character in a piece of fiction, may also contribute to his or her characterization.

Allusion - (аллюзия) is an implied or indirect reference to some literary, historical, mythological, biblical, etc. character or event. Allusion is distinguished from such devices as direct quote and imitation or parody. Most allusions are based on the assumption that there is a body of knowledge that is shared by the author and the reader and that therefore the reader will understand the author's referent. Allusions to biblical figures and figures from classical mythology are common in Western literature for this reason.