Syntagmatic relations

On the syntagmatic level, the semantic structure of the word is analysed in its linear relationships with neighbouring words in connected speech. In other words, the semantic characteristics of the word are observed, described and studied on the basis of its typical contexts, in speech:

-- phrases

-- collocations

Some collocations are totally predictable, such as spick with span, others are much less so: letter collocates with a wide range of lexemes, such as alphabet and spelling, and (in another sense) box, post, and write.

Collocations differ greatly between languages, and provide a major difficulty in mastering foreign languages. In English, we 'face' problems and 'interpret' dreams; but in modern Hebrew, we have to 'stand in front of problems and 'solve' dreams.

The more fixed a collocation is, the more we think of it as an 'idiom' - a pattern to be learned as a whole, and not as the 'sum of its parts'.

Combination of paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations in lexical system determines vocabulary as a system.

1.2 The main peculiarities of English word-stock

There are a lot of variants of the English language:

English as a native language

-- Australia

-- Canada

-- the Commonwealth Caribbean

-- Ireland

-- New Zealand

-- the United Kingdom

-- United States of America (also commonly known as the Anglosphere)

English as a second language

-- India

-- Sri Lanka

-- Pakistan and South Africa

Basic Engish is a simplified version of English for easy international use.

Basic English (total of 850 words):

Special English is a simplified version of English used by the Voice of America. It uses the vocabulary of only 1500 words.

1.3 The origin of English words

A very large number of words have been incorporated into the vocabulary of English from other languages. Such words are often called loan-wordsand the process by which they are brought into the language, is calledborrowing.

Borrowings may be classified:

-- according to the time of borrowing

-- according to the language from which the word was borrowed

-- according to the degree of assimilation

-- according to the aspect which is borrowed.

In everyday speech, the majority of words will normally be Germanic. If a speaker wishes to make a forceful point in an argument in a very blunt way, Germanic words will usually be chosen.

A majority of Latinate words (or at least a majority of content words) will normally be used in more formal speech and writing, such as a courtroom or an encyclopedia article.

English easily accepts technical terms into common use. The vocabulary is vast. English has a well-defined centre but no discernible circumference (= no visible limits).

OE words are of Anglo-Saxon origin.

Words incorporated into English from other languages - loan-words. The process is called borrowing.

I. Loan words from the point of view of the language they were taken from: cultural expansion, invasions, trade interaction.

1. Anglo-Saxon words: are of Germanic origin, characteristic - it's used in everyday conversation; the most frequent words of English vocabulary; speaking Anglo-Saxon = speaking simply; they have French synonyms # sweat - perspire; begin - commence; book - volume; climb - ascend; most words have one or two syllables.

2. The first wave of borrowings:

a) 1 BC - Roman Empire occupied Europe and Germanic tribes left. Roman brought another everyday lexis: cherry, pear, plum, pepper, kitchen, pot, wine, milk.

b) 5 AD - Celtic words came into Anglo-Saxon (names of rivers, geographic names, etc.) # Avon, Exe, Esk, Usk.

c) 7 AD - Christianization of England, Latin was the official language of church. - religious words + education.

d) 8 - 11 AD - several Scandinavian invasions, Vikings came to England. Characteristic feature: sk. # skim, skip, sky, skill, skirt. In OE - sc turned into sh. Some geographical names: +by - Willaby; another ending of geographic names - thwaite.

e) 1066 - Norman invasion. They were speaking Northern French dialect of Normandy. Extremely significant; law, government, church, court, commerce; elevated style.

# child - infant; happiness - felicity; begin - commence; hearty - cordial.

Gastronomic terms: # to stew, boil, roast, fry

To form a noun - suffixes: -ance, - ence, - ment, -age, -ess.

Adjectives+ suffixes: -ous, -able.

Verbs - prefix: -en #enact, enslave.

f) Renaissance period - # salvation, baptism.

15-16^th centuries influence of Latin, Greek - vocabulary of education. # athlete, encyclopedia, climax.

Most common affix: -urn, -us, -a, -ex, -ix # campus, chorus, diploma, matrix, index.

Greek - -is, -on: analysis, crisis, phenomenon, neutron.

NB: Russian origin: I Wave: words connected with trade # rouble, vodka, sterlad; nature: taiga, tundra.

II. Wave: influence of Russian literature of 19^th century # duma, zemstvo, narodnik

III. Wave: after the Great October revolution: # komsomol, Bolshevik, sputnik;

IV. Wave: Perestroyka: # glasnost, nomenklatura.

German borrowings: (800 words) - after Renaissance - geological terms, names of raw materials, # cobalt; everyday life # iceberg, kindergarten; Luftwaffe, schmuk.

Holland borrowings: (more than 2000 words) - nautical terms: # deck, riff, dock.

Italian borrowings: commercial terms: # bank; musical terms.

Spanish borrowings: (via America) food items: # melon, tomato.

-- Neologisms and archaisms

"Yesterday's neologisms, like yesterday's jargon, are often today's essential vocabulary."

Neologism is a word, term, or phrase which has been recently created ("coined") -- often to apply to new concepts, to synthesize pre-existing concepts, or to make older terminology sound more contemporary. Neologisms are especially useful in identifying inventions, new phenomena, or old ideas which have taken on a new cultural context. The term "e-mail", as used today, is an example of a neologism.

Neologisms can also refer to an existing word or phrase which has been assigned a new meaning.

At the present moment English is developing very swiftly and there is so called "neology blowup". R. Berchfield who worked at compiling a four- volume supplement to NED says that averagely 800 neologisms appear every year in Modern English. It has also become a language-giver recently, especially with the development of computerization.

New words, as a rule, appear in speech of an individual person who wants to express his idea in some original way. This person is called "originater". New lexical units are primarily used by university teachers, newspaper reporters, by those who are connected with mass media.

Neologisms can develop in three main ways:

-- a lexical unit existing in the language can change its meaning to denote a new object or phenomenon. In such cases we have semantic neologisms, e.g. the word "umbrella" developed the meanings: "авиационное прикрытие", "политическое прикрытие".

-- A new lexical unit can develop in the language to denote an object or phenomenon which already has some lexical unit to denote it. In such cases we have transnomination, e.g. the word "slum" was first substituted by the word "ghetto" then by the word-group "inner town".

-- A new lexical unit can be introduced to denote a new object or phenomenon. In this case we have "a proper neologism", many of them are cases of new terminology.

Newly created words entering a language tend to pass through several stages:

-- Unstable - Extremely new, being proposed, or being used only by a small subculture (also known as protologisms).

-- Diffused - Having reached a significant audience, but not yet having gained widespread acceptance.

-- Stable - Having gained recognizable and probably lasting acceptance.

-- Dated - The point where the word has ceased holding novelty and has passed into clichИ, formal linguistic acceptance, or become culturally dated in its use

Neologismscan be also classified according to the ways they are formed.

-- phonological neologisms

-- borrowings,

-- semantic neologisms

-- syntactical neologisms (morphological /word-building/ and phraseological /forming word- groups)

Morphological and syntactical neologismsare usually built on patterns existing in the language, therefore they do not belong to the group of strong neologisms.

Here also belong:

-- call-and-recall - вызов на диспансеризацию,

-- bioastronomy -search for life on other planets,

-- rat-out - betrayal in danger ,

-- zero-zero (double zero) - ban of longer and shorter range weapon,

-- x-rated /about films terribly vulgar and cruel/,

-- Ameringlish /American

Formation of neologisms:

-- affixation

peacenik

Bookateria

-- abbreviation/blending

lol

-- word overlapping

swellegant

-- compounding

skinhead

greenback

-- forming new words from combinations & sentences

bold-headish

6 o'clockish

-- forming new words according to already existing productive patterns

fingersmith - карманник

-- lexicalization

ism - as an independent word

teens

Archaisms are the language units that were current at one time but have passed out of use. It can be word, phrase or the use of spelling, letter or syntax. They are substituted by synonyms: # betwixt - between; hapless - unlikely. Some of them remain in a language but are used as stylistic devices to express solemnity. Used in poetry, law, etc.

Types: - literary (seek to awoke the style of older speech and writing);

- lexical (the use of words no longer in common use).

Archaisms are frequently misunderstood, leading to changes in usage. One example is the use of the archaic familiar second person singular pronoun "thou" to refer to God in English Christianity. Although originally a familiar pronoun, it has been misinterpreted as a respectful one by many modern Christians.

Used by lawyers in written form: # heretofore, hereunto, thereof

Religious context - # with this ring I thee wed

Obsolete words (lexical archaism) were once common but now are rare. Obsolete term is the one which is not in an active use any more.

Lexical archaisms: horse - steed; kill - slay; sorrow - woe.

Sometimes an archaism can get a new meaning: # fair - original meaning `beautiful'.

Sometimes roots of words remain and affixes change - # beauteous.