Text II-B

THE POWER OF THE SPOKEN WORD

Arguments and debates can be exhilarating experiences.

But those wishing to be more persuasive must first make sure they prepare.

If you say "I am having an argument", most people will assume that you are picking a fight. But this need not necessarily be so. The ability to argue in a controlled way is a fundamental skill. It is used by lawyers, politicians, campaigners and many others every day of the week. Arguing well is part of the process of successful negotiation. It is far more likely to get you out of trouble than into it. Some people instinctively find that they are strong arguers. However, the art of arguing can be taught, and in many schools it is part of other subjects. Until the beginning of this century, many people considered arguing to be one of the essential elements in a proper education

The Greeks and Romans, whose ideas about law, science, the arts and society have had such an enormous impact on our own culture, also influenced the way we argue. Aristotle (384-322 BC), the Greek philosopher, wrote a work called Rhetorica which laid down rules to follow in order to argue successfully. In these ancient societies, writing was used less widely than in ours and so public speaking was very important. There were no newspapers and no television to help people decide what they thought about issues. Practised speakers, known as orators, who spoke on formal occasions and at public meetings, were critical in helping to form opinions. Orators used all the tricks of rhetoric to get their points across. In Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar, Mark Antony is so angry about the assassination of Caesar, his friend, that he makes a powerful speech to the Roman people.

Shakespeare, who knew from his reading about the Roman art of public speaking, gives his character powerful lines which win the people over to his side. Speaking like a true Roman orator, Antony addresses his audience with the lines, "Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears ..."

If Anthony were transported in time and space to the Houses of Parliament in Britain today, lie would almost certainly recognise what was going on. He would realise that when politicians "debate" bills or motions, they are following on Horn the lines that were laid down in the ancient world. Whether he would be impressed by what he heard is, of course, another matter.

To win an argument, you need to convince someone that you are right. To do tliat you have to make a good case, which requires organisation. Many people have suggested ways to do this. The same basic principles underlie most systems.

Firstly, you should decide what you think. It is surprising how many people start sounding off about something without really deciding what they think about it. An opinion which has been formed without any real thought or inherited from others - friends or parents, for example - is really no more than a prejudice. Before you are able to argue on any subject, you need to understand what you are talking about.

Next, you should select your arguments. The whole process of talking about your opinion and showing why it is right is known as an argument. The individual parts of the process are also called arguments. Selecting your arguments means coming up with the reasons which best support your opinion. It often helps to think of specific examples to help illustrate them. You might want to argue that nuclear power should be banned. One of your arguments might be that it is dangerous. You might want to illustrate this by giving examples of accidents that have actually happened.

You should also anticipate your opponent's arguments because, as well as coming up with reasons in support of your opinion, you need to think about the criticisms that might be made of it. You need answers for these criticisms. This is one of the most powerful ways of winning over your audience.

The order of your arguments is also very important. You might want to deal with the powerful and convincing arguments first. On the other hand, you might like to start with the less important ones and build up a more and more convincing case. Of course, there is more to winning an argument than just having a good case. You also need to present it properly. That means not just thinking about what you say, but also about how you say it. Over the years, people have thought up a number of techniques to make what they say persuasive. These include asking rhetorical questions (which are not meant to be answered), appealing to the audience's emotions and making effective analogies.

Vocabulary.

argument - спор, дискуссия; аргумент, доказательство

debate - дебаты, дискуссия, полемика, спор

argue - спорить, доказывать, убеждать

exhilirate - оживлять, веселить

persuasive - убедительный

make sure - убедиться

assume - полагать, считать

fight - борьба

ability - способность

skin - кожа

lawyer - адвокат, юрист

negotiation - переговоры

get out of the trouble - избежать проблемы

essential - существенный

proper - подходящий, соответствующий

enormous - огромный

impact - воздействие, влияние

influence - влиять

lay down - заложить

ancient - древний

widely - широко

issue - вопрос

occasion - случай

trick - уловка

assasination - убийство

address - обращаться

audience - аудитория

countrymen - соотечественники

lend - здесь: предоставить

recognise - узнать, признать

be going on - происходить

bill - законопроект

impress - впечатлять

convince - убеждать

case - случай

require - требоваться

underlie - ледать в основе

sound off - разносить (новости)

opinion - мнение

inherit (from) - здесь: заимствовать (от)

prejudice - предубеждение

be able - быть способным, мочь

select - выбирать, отбирать

individual - отдельный

reason - причина, повод

support - поддерживать

nuclear - ядерный

ban - запрещать

accident - несчастный случай, авария

actually - на самом деле

anticipate - предвидеть

opponent - противник, оппонент

deal*(with) - иметь дело (с)

convincing - убедительный

on the other hand - с другой стороны

properly - соответственно, должным образом

appeal (to) - обращаться, взывать (к)

Word Study.

Ex. 1. Match the phrases with their Russian equivalents:

1. convincing arguments a/ существенный элемент

2. controlled way b/ официальный случай

3. in support of one's opinion c/ огромное воздействие

4. ability to argue d/ древнее общество

5. successful negotiation e/ контролируемый способ

6. more likely f/ сильный спорщик

7. strong arguer g/ правила, которым следуют

8. essential element h/ соответсвующее образование

9. proper education i/ в поддержку своего мнения

10.enormous impact j/ убедительные доказательства

11. rules to follow k/ более вероятно

12. ancient society l/ во времени и в пространстве

13. Formal occasion m/ умение спорить/доказывать

14. tricks of rhetoric n/ другой вопрос

15. in time and space o/ уловки риторики

16. Another matter p/ успешные переговоры

Ex. 2. Match the phrases with their Russian equivalents:

1. to appeal to the audience a/ победить в споре

2. to form an opinion b/ унаследовать от других

3. to be persuasive c/ обращаться к аудитории

4. to address to opponents d/ произойти на самом деле

5. to win an argument e/ лежать в основе б-ва систем

6. to inherit from others f/ обращаться к оппонентам

7. to underlie most systems g/ завоевать аудиторию

8. to anticipate some critic h/ быть убедительным

9. to happen actually i/ сформировать мнение

10. to win the audience j/ предвидеть критику

Ex. 3. Translate the following sentences into English.

1. Способность (умение) спорить/доказывать контролируемым способом является фундаментальным умением в дебатах.

2. Это умение применяется (apply) юристами, политиками и представителями ряда других профессий.

3. Хороший спор - это часть успешного ведения переговоров.

4. Некоторые люди инстинктивно чувствуют, что они - хорошие спорщики.

5. Однако искусству ведения переговоров можно научить.

6. До начала ХХ-го века многие люди рассматривали умение спорить и вести переговоры существенными элементами хорошего (proper) образования.

7. В древние времена не было ни газет, ни телевидения, а письмо (writing) использовалось в гораздо меньшей степени, чем настоящее время.

8. Чтобы победить в споре, вам нужно убедить других, что вы правы.

9. Удивительно, как много людей начинают говорить (sound off), не решив, что они думают по этому поводу.

10. Мнение, которое либо сформировано без раельного обдумыввания, либо заимствовано от других - не что иное, как предубеждение.

11. Прежде, чем начать спорить по какому-то поводу, вам нужно понять, о чем вы собираетесь говорить.

12. Затем следует отобрать нужные аргументы.

13. Весь процесс высказывания вашего мнения и доказательство того, почему это верно, называется дискуссией.

14. Затем следует отобрать доводы, которые лучше всего могут поддержать ваше мнение.

15. Неплохо также подобрать примеры, чтобы проиллюстрировать ваше доказательства.

16. Вы также должны быть готовы к возможной критике.

17. Порядок приведения примеров тоже очень важен - можно начать с менее

важных и закончить выступление наиболее убедительными.

18. С годами люди создали множество техник, чтобы выглядеть (sound) более

убедительными, в том числе риторические вопросы (вопросы, не требующие

ответа), воззвание к эмоциям аудитории и приведение убедительных

аналогий.

19. Пользуясь вышеуказанными (above) методами, вы сможете завоевать

аудитoрию.

Comprehension Check.

Answer the following questions:

1. What are the meanings of the word "argument"?

2. Who needs the skill of arguing?

3. Is the art of arguing an in-born (прирожденный) quality or it can be taught?

4 What is the book "Rhetoric" by Aristotle devoted to?

5. Why public speaking was so important in ancient times?

6. What is needed to convince someone that you are right?

7. What is needed to be successful in debates?

8. Is the order of presenting arguments important?

9. What is a rhetoric question?

Topics to Discuss.

1. Ways in which public opinion was formed in the past.

2. A book from which we can learn the skills of arguing.

3. Two different methods for presenting the points of the argument.

4. Criticism of speaking without preparation.

Text II-C