Guess the meaning of the words in bold type. Analyze their word-formation model.

green – greenish; large – largely; pure – purity – purify; geology — geologist — geological; nature – natural; compress – compression; migrate – migration;react– reaction; produce – production – producer; general – generally; history – historically; arrange – arrangement; economy – economical – economist; extract – extraction; profit – profitable – profitably; inject – injection; gas – gaseous; significance – significant – significantly; place – displace; concentrate – concentration

6. Find the derivatives of the words in italics in the left-hand columns:

7. Define to what parts of speech the following words belong and translate them. Define which words in the list are complex words:

Composition; purity; fertilizer; geologist; natural; compression; geological; prehistoric; organic; sedimentary; layer; underground; reaction; eventually; arrangement; network; pipeline; storage; lifetime; insufficient; economical; low-pressure; submersible; reinjection; typical; different; location; breakdown; to ensure; gaseous; profitably; cogeneration; recovery; landfill; organosulfur; impurity; unlike; hazardous; liquefaction; gasification; end-use; wasteful

ACTIVE VOCABULARY

8. Read and memorize the following words and word combinations:

9. Read and translate the text below concentrating on oil extraction problems:

Text 11 A

Oil Extraction

Petroleum (from Greek petra — rock and elaion — oil or Latin oleum – oil ), crude oil, sometimes colloquially called black gold or «Texas Tea», is a thick, dark brown or greenish liquid. Petroleum exists in the upper strata of some areas of the Earth’s crust. It consists of a complex mixture of various hydrocarbons, largely of the alkane series, but may vary much in appearance, composition, and purity. Petroleum is used mostly, by volume, for producing fuel oil, which is an important «rimary energy» source. Petroleum is also the raw material for many chemical products, including solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, and plastics.

Most geologists view crude oil, like coal and natural gas, as the product of compression and heating of ancient vegetation over geological time scale. According to this theory, it is formed from the decayed remains of prehistoric marine animals and terrestrial plants. Over many centuries this organic matter, mixed with mud, is buried under thick sedimentary layers of material. The resulting high levels of heat and pressure cause the remains to metamorphose, first into a waxy material known as kerogen, and then into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons in a process known as catagenesis. These then migrate through adjacent rock layers until they become trapped underground in porous rocks called reservoirs, forming an oil field, from which the liquid can be extracted by drilling and pumping. 150m is generally considered the «oil window». Though this corresponds to different depths for different locations around the world, a ‘typical’ depth for an oil window might be 4 — 5 km. Three conditions must be present for oil reservoirs to form: a rich source rock, a migration conduit, and a trap (seal) that forms the reservoir.

The reactions that produce oil and natural gas are often modeled as first order breakdown reactions, where kerogen breaks down to oil and natural gas by a large set of parallel reactions, and oil eventually breaks down to natural gas by another set of reactions. Generally the first stage in the extraction of crude oil is to drill a well into the underground reservoir. Historically, in the USA some oil fields existed where the oil rose naturally to the surface, but most of these fields have long since been depleted, except for certain remote locations in Alaska.

Often many wells will be drilled into the same reservoir, to ensure that the extraction rate will be economically viable. Also, some wells (secondary wells) may be used to pump water, steam, acids or various gas mixtures into the reservoir to raise or maintain the reservoir pressure, and so maintain an economic extraction rate.

If the underground pressure in the oil reservoir is sufficient, then the oil will be forced to the surface under this pressure. Gaseous fuels or natural gas are usually present, which also supplies needed underground pressure. In this situation it is sufficient to place a complex arrangement of valves on the well head to connect the well to a pipeline network for storage and processing. This is called primary oil recovery. Usually, only about 20% of the oil in a reservoir can be extracted this way.

Over the lifetime of the well the pressure will fall, and at some point there will be insufficient underground pressure to force the oil to the surface. If economical, and it often is, the remaining oil in the well is extracted using secondary oil recovery methods. Secondary oil recovery uses various techniques to aid in recovering oil from depleted or low-pressure reservoirs. Sometimes pumps, such as beam pumps and electrical submersible pumps (ESPs), are used to bring the oil to the surface.

Other secondary recovery techniques increase the reservoir’s pressure by water injection, natural gas reinjection and gas lift, which injects air, carbon dioxide or some other gas into the reservoir. Together, primary and secondary recovery allow 25% to 35% of the reservoir’s oil to be recovered. Tertiary oil recovery reduces the oil’s viscosity to increase oil production. Tertiary recovery is started when secondary oil recovery techniques are no longer enough to sustain production, but only when the oil can still be extracted profitably. This depends on the cost of the extraction method and the current price of crude oil. When prices are high, previously unprofitable wells are brought back into production and when they are low, production is curtailed. Thermally-enhanced oil recovery methods (TEOR) are tertiary recovery techniques that heat the oil and make it easier to extract. Steam injection is the most common form of TEOR, and is often done with a cogeneration plant.

In this type of cogeneration plant, a gas turbine is used to generate electricity and the waste heat is used to produce steam, which is then injected into the reservoir. This form of recovery is used extensively to increase oil production in the San Joaquin Valley, which has very heavy oil, yet accounts for 10% of the United States’ oil production. In-situ burning is another form of TEOR, but instead of steam, some of the oil is burned to heat the surrounding oil. Occasionally, detergents are also used to decrease oil viscosity. Tertiary recovery allows another 5% to 15% of the reservoir’s oil to be recovered.

TEXT AND VOCABULARY EXERCISES

10. Find in the text the words or phrases which mean the same as:

11. Find in the text the synonyms to the following words:

12. Find in the text the antonyms to the following words:

13. Give Russian equivalents to the following word combinations:

Complex mixture; to vary in appearance, composition, and purity; primary energy; over many centuries; organic matter; thick sedimentary layer; different locations; the extraction of crude oil; underground reservoir; extraction rate; economically viable; to be under the pressure; oil recovery; to generate electricity; to produce steam; ancient vegetation

14. Give English equivalents to the following word combinations:

удобрение; осадочные слои материала; месторождение нефти; бурение и перекачка; извлечение сырой нефти; методы восстановления нефти; вторичное восстановление нефти; различные методы; увеличивать производство нефти

15. Choose among the words in parentheses the one that corresponds to the text above to complete the sentences:

1. Petroleum, crude oil, is a thick, dark brown or ___ liquid.

(a. blackish; b. grayish; c. greenish)

2. Petroleum ___ of a complex mixture of various hydrocarbons, but may vary much in appearance, composition, and purity.

(a. consists; b. includes; c. forms)

3. Most geologists view ___ oil as the product of compression and heating of ancient vegetation over geological time scales.

(a. hard; b. soft; c. crude)

4. Over many centuries this organic matter, mixed with mud, is buried under ___ layer of material.

(a. thick; b. thin; c. sedimentary)

5. The reactions that produce oil and natural gas are often ___ as first order breakdown reactions.

(a. thought; b. imagined; c. modeled)

6. Generally the first stage in the ___ of crude oil is to drill a well into the underground reservoir.

(a. mining; b. extraction; c. producing)

7. If the underground pressure is ___ the oil will be forced to the surface under this pressure.

(a. large; b. weak; c. sufficient)

8. Secondary oil recovery uses various ___ to aid in recovering oil from depleted or low pressure reservoirs.

(a. techniques; b. tools; c. equipment)

16. Read text 11A once more. In pairs, discuss the statements below. Say what you think about them and ask your partner if he/she agrees or disagrees with you. Use the following phrases to help you:

1. Petroleum, crude oil, sometimes colloquivally called black gold or «Texas Tea» is a thick, dark brown or greenish liquid.

2. Petroleum is also the raw material for many chemical products, including solvents,fertilizers, pesticides, and plastics.

3. Gaseous hydrocarbons migrate through adjacent rock layer, forming an oil field, from which the liquid can be extracted by drilling and pumping.

4. Four or five conditions must be present for oil reservour to form.

5. Usually, only about 10 % of the oil in a reservoir can be extracted by primary oil recovery.

6. If economical, the remining oil in the well is extracted using secondary oil recovery methods.

7. Together, primary and secondary recovery allow 10 % to 20 % of the reservoir’s to be recovered.

8. Tertiary recovery depends on the cost of the extraction method and the current price of crude oil.

9. Steam injection is a very rare form of thermally-enhanced oil recovery methods.

10. Occasionally, detergents are also used to decrease oil viscosity.