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Word Choice: Synonyms
| You will often find that several words share a similar general meaning. But be careful – their meanings are almost always different in one way or another. When comparing two words in the dictionary, look at the definitions and examples and any Usage Notes. Then ask yourself these questions: ¨ Is the meaning exactly the same? Compare: argue / claim:both words mean “to state”, but argue means to say that something is true/not true, right/wrong, etc. and to give reasons why you think that esp. to persuade people that you are right, and claim means to say that something is true although it has not been proved and other people may not believe it Sometimes the words are different in degree: astonishment is a stronger word than surprise Sometimes the words express a different attitude: You say something is newfangled if you disapprove of it because it is too modern, in a way that seems unnecessary. If you do not feel disapproval, you can use words like new or modern. ¨ Are the words used in the same situations? Words with a similar meaning are often used in very different situations. Sometimes the words have a different style: In these pairs, one of the words has a particular style which means that it is not usually used in an ordinary situation. Compare: seek (formal) / look for brainy (informal) / intelligent crap (impolite) / nonsense kick the bucket (humorous) / die Sometimes the words are used by particular people: Some words are normally used by specialists and are referred to as ‘technical’. Other people will use another word for the same thing. Compare: cardiac arrest (technical) / heart attack ¨ Do the words have the same grammar? Sometimes words with a similar meaning are used in different grammatical patterns. Compare: to suggest / to propose: Both verbs can mean“ to put forward an idea or a plan for other people to think about ”, but are followed by different verb patterns: suggest doing sth, suggest that sb do sth, suggest that sb should do sthandpropose doing sth / to do sth ¨ Do the words form the same collocations? aim / goal: Both words collocate with the verb “achieve”, but goal can be also used with attain, while aim cannot. We usually say “aims and objective”, “twin goals”. Notice that even when words appear to be synonyms, they are rarely the same in all the ways discussed here. |
Task 5. [individually]
(a) Study the words below. They all mean approximately the same, still there are some slight differences in their meanings. Identify the differences and complete the diagram with Russian equivalents.
someone who supports a person, political party, idea etc.
| adherent | advocate | follower | supporter | |||
| Formal a person who supports a political party or set of ideas: [+ to] | 1. a person who publicly supports a particular way of doing things: [+ of] 2. a person who acts and speaks in support of sb else: [+ for] | a person who supports and admires a particular person or set of ideas: [+ of] | a person who supports a particular person, group, or plan, etc: [+ of] | |||
| … | … | … | … |
(b) 
Complete the following sentences with the most appropriate words from the diagram above.
1. Volunteers serve as ………….. forabused children.
2. From the start of psychoanalysis, Freud attracted ……………., many of whom later proposed competing theories.
3. ………………. of the biopsychological perspective argue that much of human behavior can be explained in terms of bodily processes and structures.
4. Some psychologists, particularly …………. to humanistic psychology, may go as far as completely rejecting a scientific approach.
5. A debate between Adler's ……………….. and Freud's was arranged, but it resulted in Adler, with nine other members of the organization, resigning to form the Society for Free Psychoanalysis in 1911.
6. Carl Jung, a one-time ………….. and contemporary of Freud, was instrumental in introducing notions of spirituality into Freudian psychoanalysis (Freud had rejected religion as a mass delusion).
Task 6. [individually, then in pairs]
(a) Study the words below. Identify the differences between the words. Note the patterns each word occurs in.
| approach | perspective | viewpoint | school of thought | |||
| a method of doing something or dealing with a problem | a particular attitude towards sth; a way of thinking about sth | a particular way of thinking about a problem or subject | an opinion or way of thinking about sth that is shared by a group of people | |||
| [+ to] to adopt an ~ to take an ~ an ~ to sth in sth | [+ on] [from sb's ~] [from a feminist/Christian /global etc ~] a ~ on sth in sth | [+ on] [from sb's ~] [from the ~ of sb/sth [political/scientific/feminist etc ~] | ||||
| … | … | … | … |
(b) Study the following sentences. In some of them the words in bold can be used interchangeably, in others only one word is appropriate.
1. Rogers developed person-centered therapy, a nonjudgmental, nondirective approach that helped clients clarify their sense of who they are in an effort to facilitate their own healing process.
2. Behaviorism revolutionized psychology and remained the dominant school of thought / perspective / approach for nearly 50 years.
3. Socrates made many important observations about how the brain controlled various organs of the body, which set the stage for the modern approach to physiology and the biological perspective / approach in psychology.
4. A particular area of psychological investigation often can be analyzed from a number of different viewpoints / perspectives.
5. We need to seriously consider all the different viewpoints / perspectives onthe issue.
(c) Translate the sentences into English.
1. Попробуйте посмотреть на этот вопрос с другой точки зрения.
2. Мы решили подойти к проблеме с другой стороны.
3. К изучению психологии можно подойти с нескольких сторон.
4. Феноменологическое направление в психологии изучает субъективные переживания индивида, свободу выбора и стремление к самореализации.
5. На психологию оказали влияние различные школы псевдонаучной мысли.
6. Подход Вундта к изучению психики основывался на систематическом наблюдении.
Task 7. [individually]
(a) Study the words below, noting the differences between them. Complete the diagram with Russian equivalents.
| invent | discover | find out | learn | determine | ||||
| to make or design sth that did not exist before | to find sth that already exists or learn about it for the first time, before anyone else does. You can also discover a piece of information that other people knew but you didn't | to get information, after trying to discover it or by chance | formal to become aware of sth by hearing it from sb else or reading it | formal to discover the facts about sth | ||||
| … | … | … | … | … |
(b) Complete the sentences with appropriate verbs in the correct form.
1. Pavlov had _______________ a basic form of learning called classical conditioning (also referred to as Pavlovian conditioning) in which an organism comes to associate one stimulus with another.
2. Who _____________ the steam engine?
3. We ______________ later that we had been at the same school.
4. I had some tests done to _____________ if I have any food allergies.
5. It is essential to ___________ whether such programs—aimed, for example, at preventing drug abuse among high-school students, or providing job training for unemployed youths—are effective.
6. Several months ago McNaughtan _______________ that he had cancer.
7. But to assume that problems of mind and behavior can be solved by discarding all that we have ______________ about scientific methods of investigation seems fallacious.
Task 8. [in pairs]
Study the following pairs and groups of synonyms and example sentences. Try to find out if there are any differences between them either in meaning or in usage. Make notes of the identified differences in the boxes.
| explore | investigate |
| 1. Wilhelm Wundt established the first lab in 1897 to explore the “contents” or “structure” of thought through introspection. 2. But in the early 1900s, growing numbers of psychologists voiced criticism of the approach used by scholars to exploreconscious and unconscious mental processes. 3. These ideas will be explored in more detail in chapter 7. | 4. Social psychologists investigate topics such as persuasion, conformity, intergroup conflict, and the formation of attitudes. 5. The study investigates the impact of violent TV programming on children. 6. William James promoted a school of thought known as functionalism, the belief that the real task of psychology is to investigate the function, or purpose, of consciousness rather than its structure. |
| exploration | 1. More careful exploration of the human mind is needed. 2. The remainder of this paper will focus on an exploration of this theme. | |
| Investigation | 1. The pioneering work of Russian psychologist Pavlov charted another new course for psychological investigation. 2. From behavior we may be able to make inferences about the minds and the brain, but they are not the primary focus of the investigation. 3. You may conduct an investigation on it. | |
| study | 1. The psychological study of cognition became known as cognitive psychology. 2. Watson narrowly defined psychology as the scientific study of behavior. | |
| research | 1.Each school shares major assumptions and approaches to research. 2. In light of Darwin’s theory of evolution, Watson also advocated the use of animals in psychological research. 3. Psychologists gradually turned away from research on invisible mental processes. 4. The term "scientific" means that the research methods used to collect data are unbiased and objective. |
| response | reaction |
| 1. the public's response to our appeal for help 2. Erik Erikson proposed that development occurred throughout an individual's lifespan in response to eight psychological crises. 3. The exhibition has received a positive response from visitors. 4. The decision provoked an angry response from residents. 5. His immediate response was one of disbelief. 6. To conceive of human actions solely in terms of stimulus and responsemay be adequate for the study of simple forms of behavior, but this approach neglects too many important areas of human functioning. | 7. the government's reaction to the fuel crisis 8. The cognitive perspective (that from here on refers to the modern version) developed partly in reaction to the narrowness of the S-R view. 9. The news brought an angry reaction from unions. 10. His first reaction was to deny everything. |
| innate | inborn |
| 1. Personal growth and self-fulfillment are natural strivings of our innate good nature, the natural unfolding of our unique and precious self. 2. Nativists believed that certain elementary truths are innate to the human mind and need not be gained through experience | 1. The motivating force is the unique "SELF" that strives to "self-actualize" its inborn potential. 2. Personality is "determined" not only by unconscious motives and drives but also by early childhood experience and inborn drives which are largely unconscious. |
Task 9. [individually]
Translate the following into English using appropriate words and phrases from Task 8.
1. Эти вопросы еще не были детально рассмотрены.
2. В отличие от Вундта и Джеймса, для которых психология была изучением сознательного опыта, Фрейд полагал, что поведение людей мотивировано в основном бессознательными побуждениями.
3. Они разрабатывали теории о том, являются ли черты характера человека врожденными или приобретенными.
4. Они изучают стимулы окружающей среды и реакции, вызываемые этими стимулами.
5. Гуманистическая психология возникла в 50-ые годы как реакция на бихевиоризм и психоанализ.
6. Теперь, когда у нас есть некоторое представление о темах, изучаемых в психологии, и подходах к их изучению, мы можем рассмотреть методы исследования.
Task 10. [individually]
Put the following sentences into more formal English by replacing the underlined words with their more formal equivalents.
1. The cognitive perspective is interested in mental processes such as perceiving, remembering, reasoning, deciding, and problem solving, and with relating these processes to behavior.
2. Supporters of the biopsychological perspective argue that much of human behavior can be explained in terms of bodily processes and structures.
3. They argued that all human experiences—including sensations, images, thoughts, and feelings—are physical processes happening within the brain and nervous system.
4. From the start of psychoanalysis, Freud attracted followers, many of whom later suggested competing theories.
5. According to dualism, the behavior of the body is shaped by mechanistic laws and can be measured in a scientific manner.
6. It is essential to find out whether such programs are effective.
7. His views encouraged the development of the modern focus on applied psychology and behaviorism.
8. In contradiction to the structuralist movement, William James promoted a school of thought known as functionalism, the belief that the real task of psychology is to find out information about the function, or purpose, of consciousness rather than its structure.
9. On the basis of his observations, Freud came up with a theory of personality and a form of psychotherapy known as psychoanalysis.
10. Behaviourism was the dominant model in psychology for much of the early 20th century, largely due to the creation and successful practical use of conditioning theories as scientific models of human behaviour.
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