Typological Characteristics of Particles

Particles in English and Ukrainian are unchangeable words specifying some component in a phrase or the whole phrase (a sentence/clause). Unlike conjunctions or prepositions, particles do not express any syntactic relations.

As to their morphological structure, particles in the contrasted languages may be:

· Simple:all, else, even, just, too, yet, not, а, і/й, так, ну, не, ж, еге and others;

· Derivative:alone, merely, scarcely, simply, нумо, було, воно, та, те, це, оце, а, чи;

· Compound:almost, also (невже, якраз).

Isomorphic is the homonymy of many particles in English and Ukrainian with the following parts of speech:

§ with adverbs: exactly, precisely, never, simply, still, просто, лиш, там, ще, вже;

§ with adjectives (in English): even, right, just;

§ with pronouns: all, either, все, воно, собі, те, то;

§ with conjunctions (very few in English): but they are in Ukrainian (а, і, та, чи);

· with articles (in English only): themore, the better; the longer, the better.

The semantic groups of particles are:

1. Particles of emphatic precision (емфатичного уточнення): absolutely, exactly, precisely, right, точно, справді, просто, прямо and others.
2. Demonstrative particles/вказівні: here, there, ось, от, це, оце, онде, ген, воно:
3. Affirmative particles/стверджувальні: well, now, yes, так, гаразд, еге, еге ж, атож:
4. Intensifying particles / підсилювальні/ are rather numerous in English and Ukrainian: all, but, just, even, simply, yet, still, etc. і, й, та, аж, навіть, вже, ж, бо, же.
5. Negative or form-building (заперечні й формотворні) particles: not, never, no, не, ні, ані. These particles are used for the following purposes: a) to make a predicate verb in both languages negative.
6. Interrogative particles/запитальні частки: well, really, no, why, why not, га, ну, невже, хіба, та ну, що за, eg:
7. Connecting or linking particles/приєднувальні частки: also, too (тож, також/теж, до того ж, ще й.

Particles in both contrasted languages can perform not only form-building but also word-forming functions. Word-forming are the following English particles: else-, not-, no more-, -most (elsewhere, notwithstanding, forget-me-not, nothingness, moreover, almost, altogether, although, nothing, nowhere).

Ukrainian has a considerably larger number of word-forming particles, eg: -будь, -небудь, казна-, хтозна-, -сь, аби-, де-, не-, ні-, би-, б-, -же-, -ж and others: хто-небудь, декуди, де-небудь, якийсь, мовби, ніби, начеб, щоб, ніколи, недбальство, ніде, ніщо, кознащо, немов, адже, отже, також, теж, ніж, etc. Form-building particles are used in English in the following functions:

a) as an infinitival identifier: to ask, to be reading;

b) as a representation specifier (he'll come if asked to);

c) as a specifier of degree (the larger part, he's the quickest, more quickly);

d) as a negator of a word (eg: cannot) or a phrase (not he, certainly not, no reading practice).

Ukrainian form-building particles have a wider range of use. They may be part of a morphological paradigm (as in case of the particles хай, нехай, най-, що-, як-, -сь, би/б): Хай він жде біля криниці.

5. Typological Characteristics of Interjections/Emotives

Interjections are unchangeable words or phrases expressing emotional and volitional reaction of the speaker on some event. Hence, there are to be distinguished communicative, emotive, and signalising interjections, which express respectively joy or pleasure, sadness, warning or repugnance, etc.

Interjections in English and Ukrainian utterances mostly occupy a front position, rarely a midposition or a closing position.

Interjections may be primary (первинні) and derivative (похідні). According to their structure, interjections may be simple, compound and composite, or phrasal.

Simple interjections fall into some subgroups, namely:

· interjections consisting of one or two sounds: ah, a-ah, oh, oo, ooh, oof, coo, gee. Or in Ukrainian: а! е! о! е-е! ай! ах! ox! xa! xe!yx! am! em! etc.

· Interjections may consist of consonant sounds only: brr, mm, sh (sh-sh) гм! хм! цсс! шш! брр!;

· с) interjections often consist of more than two different sounds which form one syllable: gosh, tut, umph, whoop гай! гей! гов! гоп! пхе! пхи! etc;

· interjections can consist of two syllables: alas, ahem, boffo, hello/hullo, okey ага! агей! ату! агусь! ану! люлі! нумо! овва! ого! мугу!);

· е) reduplicating (повторні) interjections are pertained to both languages as well: ah-ah, ay-ay, ee-ee, goe-goe, how-how, ho-ho, hubba-hubba, chock-chock, ta-ta, tut-tut. Similarly in Ukrainian: a-a, ану-ану, гай-гай, еге-ге, о-го-го, ну-ну, ха-ха.

Compound interjections are more characteristic of English than of Ukrainian, eg: heigh-ho, holla-ho, fiddlesticks, whoo-whoop, wo-ho, yo-ho, etc. Cf.: Господи-Боже! Добридень! Спасибі! Боже мій!

Derivative interjections are mostly of common origin and sometimes even of identical lexical meaning. There are distinguished six types of emotional interjections:

· of substantival origin: beans! bully! fiddle! hell! Lord! nuts! raspberry! rabbit! rats! taps! Господи! матінко! пене! Боже! леле! жах! страх! ґвалт! слава! хвала! біда! горе!;

· of verbalorigin: come! look! see! cut! bother! shoot! диви! гляди! бач! рятуйте! пробачте! даруйте! прощайте! побачимо! цур! (from цуратися);

· с) of adjectival origin (mostly in English): fine! grand! right! dear! divine! gracious!;

· of adverbial origin: here! there! now! well! why? so! добре! зараз! тут! там! так;

· of pronominal origin: "ay me! oh me!" (Shakespeare) отаке! стільки ж! отакої! "Куди ж писати?" "Отакої! Не знає куди!.." (О. Гончар);

· of phrasal origin (contracted), which are rather numerous in English: howdy (from how do you do), alright (from all right), my! (from my God/my Lord), dammit (from damn it), attaboy (from that's a boy), добридень (from добрий день), спасибі (from спаси біг), тсь! цсс! (from тихіше), etc.

Emotive interjections express various feelings, one interjection being often used in English and Ukrainian to express different meanings. These classes of meanings are as follows:

1. Positive feelings (joy, satisfaction, sympathy)
2. Incentive orders (спонукальні накази)
3. Here also belong interjectional orders given to domestic animals. For example: gee-up! or giddap! hait! hi-up! (to horses) но! гайда! вйо! whoa, hoa, whoa! mnpy!sookl sook! цоб-цабе! puss, puss, puss! киці, киці-киці; киць-киць-киць; dilly, dilly! тась, тась! chook-chook! chuck-chuck! ціп-ціп-ціп! etc.
4. Negative feelings (grief, sorrow, horror, alarm, disgust, etc.):
5. Orders to stop an action: hist! hush! shh! shush! In Ukrainian: тихо! тихо! тсс! тс! шш! cave! — обережно! nuf! nuff! — годі! scat! shoo! — геть!
6. Greetings and partings which may sometimes be rather emotional as well.

Imitations of sounds produced by birds and animals can not be treated as interjections or as emotives unless used on some occasions for the sake of stylisation.