ВСТУПЛЕНИЕ 12 страница

5. Many experiments have shown that the brain is the centre of feel­ing and understanding. The nerve cells in the brain can be «put to sleep» with ether or other anesthetics. Then the brain does not feel any im­pulses from the part being operated on. Sometimes the nerve cells near the part of our body being treated may be deadened by novocaine, as

when the dentist pulls a tooth. What the novocaine does is preventing the impulses from getting to the brain from the nerve in the tooth.

6. The cerebellum is the centre for making your muscles work as a team. The medulla is the centre of certain of our most important acts: breathing and heartbeat, on which life itself depends. The medulla is also capable of controlling acts such as swallowing and yawning.

Упражнение 6. Переведите письменно абзацы 5 и 6 текста A. i

Упражнение 7. Найдите в тексте А ответы на следующие вопросы и зачи­тайте их.

1. What do we know about the structure of the nerve cell? 2. How does a nerve react to a stimulus? 3. How many parts is the brain made

up of? 4. What have scientists found out about the brain?

i

Упражнение 8. Прочтите и переведите следующие предложения, выбрав одну из данныхing-форм, подходящую по смыслу. ^

ЧЧ. Ч b

reacting, responding, combining, descending, controlling, contain­ing, cooling,Warming У

1. A large number of narcotics or anesthetics produce depression by... directly wtith protoplasm. 2. ... decreases and ... enhances excitability. 3. The human auditory receptors are capable of U to^%a range from 16 to 20 000 molecular vibrations. 4. Electromagnetic vibrations include in ... order: hertzian, infra-red, visible, ultra-violet, roentgen, gamma and cosmic rays. 5. Nerves placed in solutions ... carbohydrate and fat cause a decrease in both of these foodstuffs. 6. Cerebellum is the higher centre for ... equilibrium. л, ч ,

(O.'v-Л-'"Л

Упражнение 9. Переведите следующие предложения сing-формами на русский язык, определите их функции.

1. The intensity of an impulse arising during the relatively refractory^ period is less and it decreases when passing through a depressed stretch of nerve. 2. Functional nerve block can be produced without cutting or injuring the fibres permanently. 3. Among the outstanding symptoms found in cerebellar disease, ataxia (i.e. the inability of maintaining equi­librium through failure of muscular coordination) received a great deal of attention. Thus, a cigarette may be raised to the eye or a spoon may reach the ear and the patient (with cerebellar disease) is quite incapable of easily touching the tip of his nose when the eyes are closed. 4. Exten­sive pathological changes or injury of the brain, including the frontal

lobes, cause both in man and inimal disturbances and abnormalities aich as torpidity, inertia, inattention, indifference to surroundings, etc.

Часть II

Слова к части II

^{: '-'^'лН

tensenчувство, ощущение; terminal[Чэ:шшэ1] nокончание

cutaneoussenseкожное ощущениеscatterfskaetd] vрассеивать(ся), раз- pain [pein] nболь брасывать \ > -

imell [smel] nзапах; обоняние augment ['o:gment] уувеличивать(ся),

thirst [0a:st] п жажда усиливать(ся)

Упражнения

Упражнение 1. Прочтите и переведите следующие слова.

classification, to classify, equilibrium, cutaneous, to distribute, cor­puscle, reflex, stimulus

Упражнение 2. Найдите в данном ряду слово, синонимичное данному в начале ряда.

1. sense - feeling, sense organs, faculty, sensation; 2. to excite — to cause, to respond, to arouse, to stimulate; 3. completely — partially, always, fully, at last, to the end; 4. to augment — to decrease, to in­crease, to stop, to stimulate

Упражнение 3. Найдите слово, перевод которого дан в начале ряда.

1. знакомый - famous, known, near, close, familiar; 2. ощущение, иосприятие — sense, sensibility, sensation, sensationism; 3. усталость — hunger, thirst, fatigue, tired; 4. спускаться — to ascend, to come down, to go down, to descend

Упражнение 4. Прочтите текст В (10 мин). 1) Скажите, какие органы чувств описаны в тексте. Опишите механизм мышечных ощущений. 2) Найдите и переведите предложения с ing-формами.

щ

Text В *

Classification of the Senses

Sense organs are specialized endings of the sensory division of the peripheral nerves.

We are commonly thought to possess five senses. Actually, there are many more. We may classify them as follows: 1) the cutaneous senses —

touch, heat, cold and pain; 2) the deeper senses — pressure and muscle sense; 3) the internal senses, or senses from the internal organs of the body; 4) the special senses, or those in which the receptors lie in special organs - sight, hearing, equilibrium, taste and smell; and finally 5) the general body senses — hunger, thirst, fatigue, sexual sensation, etc.

The cutaneous senses. There are said to be 500,000 touch receptors in the skin. They are unevenly distributed, being most numerous in the finger tips, lips and tongue, and least numerous on the back. Their receptors are specialized structures called Meissner's corpuscles. The sense-organs for cold constitute 150,000 receptors; they are the end- organs of Krause. Warmth has about 16,000 receptors, the end-organs of Ruffini; and pain has some 3,000,000 receptors. Pain receptors, how­ever, are not specialized; they are simply the naked ends of the pain nerves, ^soW^ftat branched at their terminals. The Pacinian corpuscles are the receptors for pressure, and the muscle spindles for muscle sense.

Proprioception. Everyone knows what pain and touch are, but proprio­ception («muscle sense») may be less familiar. It is a very important sense since it is the sensory link of a reflex controlling muscle tone and contrac­tion; and it also gives the brain important information about the location or position of the limbs. Muscle spindles are tiny, spindle-shaped structures scattered throughout muscles, and they are most numerous around the tendons and joints. The stimulus exciting then* is muscle contraction and joint movement. Since muscles are never completely at rest — one portion or another is contracting all the time — there is a constant flow of nerve impulses into the spinal cord over the muscle sense fibres. Any activity of muscles, such as walking, augments the flow. Let us analyze the fact of walking. One foot is lifted from the ground, moved forward, and, as it descends, the weight of the body is shifted to this foot. The other foot is then lifted, moved, etc. Once a child has learned to walk, he accomplishes this action not notising it; it is done reflexly, and this reflex is one in which the sensory information comes over the fibres of proprioception.

At any instant of time, the spinal cord is receiving information as to the immediate, present location of the feet and legs, and it is sending out, over motor fibres, impulses which continue the activity. At any time, a person knows, without looking, approximately where his feet are and where his legs are, since this information is also being sent to the brain.

Упражнение 6. Прочтите данные суждения. Найдите в тексте предложения, более полно выражающие мысль данных суждений.

1. There are more senses than we are commonly thought to possess. 2. Besides touch receptors there are cold, warmth and pain receptors.

i Proprioception is the sensory link of a reflex. 4. Muscle contraction ind joint movements excite muscle spindles. 5. Walking augments the How of impulses. 6. The spinal cord and the brain regulate motor activity.

У пражнение 7. Передайте основное содержание текста В письменно.

У пражнение 8. Назовите наиболее важные центры головного мозга. Проверьте себя по рис. 12.

Часть III

Контрольно-обобщающие упражнения к уроку 13

Упражнение 1. Найдите герундий в данных предложениях. Переведитепредложения.

1. The brain is the primary centre for regulating and coordinating body activities. 2. Man receives his information concerning the outside world through his sense organs. 3. We know of the position of an arm or ,i leg without looking at it. 4. The nerves are trunks containing many nerve fibres which are incased in a common sheath. 5. The conditioned i сflexes discovered by I. P. Pavlov are the mechanism through which the body responds to the outside world in avoiding injury, obtaining food and performing many more complex acts. 6. The best method in this aise is removing one adrenal totally and rendering the medulla of the other non-functional by cutting the splanchnic nerves.

(Ответ: 1, 3, 5, 6. Если вы ошиблись, повторите § 23 Грамматичес­кого справочника.)

Упражнение 2. Найдите в следующих предложениях: а) герундий; б) при­частие; в) отглагольное существительное.

1. The brain has many different parts controlling different aspects of i he body functions. 2. The cerebellum is located beneath the posterior part of the cerebrum, its function being to aid in the coordination of voluntary movements and to maintain balance and muscular tone. 3. The thalamus monitors the sensory stimuli we receive by suppressing some and magnifying others. 4. Professor told us about diagnosing the hypophi- sis disfunctions. 5. The proprioceptors in the muscles not only supply information on the condition of the muscles, but aid in controlling the energy and extent of muscular activity. 6. Paralysis often results from the plugging up of blood vessels, and consequent arrest of blood supply to an area of the brain.

(Ответ: a) 3, 4, 5; 6) 1, 2; в) 6. Если вы ошиблись, повторите § 24 Грамматического справочника.)

Упражнение 3. Переведите следующие пары слов.

1. a shoulder — to shoulder; 2. a load — to load; 3. a look — to look at...; 4. a sign - to sign; 5. a dream — to dream; 6. an aim — to aim

(Ответ: 1. плечо—брать на себя, взваливать на плечи; 2. груз — нагружать; 3. взгляд — взглянуть на...; 4. знак — подписывать; 5. мечта (сон) - мечтать (видеть сон); 6. цель - целиться, направ­лять.)

III. Microbiology

LESSON FOURTEEN

VIRUSES. BACTERIA

1. Условные предложения (§31)

2. Различные функции глаголов shall, will, should, would (§ 33)

Часть I

Слова к части I

disease [di'zi:z] nзаболевание, бо­лезнь

particle ['pcctikl] nчастица expect [iks'pekt] vожидать, предпо­лагать

hereditary [hi'reditari] а наследствен­ный

facilitate [fs'siliteit] vоблегчать, спо­собствовать core[ко:]nядро

Упражнения

Упражнение 1. Переведите следующие условные предложения на русский,;

язык. j

«>

if

1. The experiment would be ready by the end of the month if they supplied us with all the necessary material on the problem. 2. If a transverse section is made through the cerebral hemispheres, the inner white matter and the embedded grey matter may be observed. 3. All sensations such as touch, pain and temperature are lost if cerebral hemispheres are destroyed.

4. If a piece of ice were placed against the skin, it would cause a sudden change in environment of the body and the sensation of cold would result.

5. If a man touches hot water, he quickly withdraws his hand.

* пражнение 2. Напишите данные предложения так, чтобы они выражали маловероятное предположение.

()бразец: If they get all the necessary material, they will be able to

go on with their experiment.

If they got all the necessary material, they would be able to go on with their experiment.

1. If an object passes in front of the eyes, the changes in the intensity of the light stimulate the nerve endings in the eye. 2. If food is taken into the mouth, stimulation of the various receptors in the mucous membrane brings about reflex secretions. 3. If one can make a nerve connection between the sensitive receptor cells of the ear and the area in the brain associated with sight, it will be possible to perceive, or «see» sounds.

Упражнение 3. Напишите данные предложения так, чтобы они выражали упущенную возможность совершить действие.

Образец: If the doctor knows the reason of the patient's trouble, he

will help him immediately.

If the doctor had known the reason of the patient's trouble yesterday he would have helped him immediately.

1. If the cerebral cortex in this animal is completely removed, no connection reflexes will be formed at all. 2. If she takes part in the conference, she will make a good report. 3. If we use new apparatus, we shall save much time. 4. If the surgeon on duty does not ope­rate patient N., serious complications may result.

Упражнение 4. Переведите следующие предложения с глаголамиshall, will, should, would.

1. If you ascend in the atmosphere as in flying an airplane, climbing a high mountain, or riding a fast elevator, the atmospheric pressure, and that in the outer ear, will drop, while that in the middle ear remains the same. 2. Damage to one side of the brain will cause paral­ysis on the opposite side of the body. 3. He said he would prepare the report on the functions of sense organs. 4. They shall attend this lec­ture by all means. 5. There are certain aspects in the differential diag­nosis which should be considered whenever headache is found to be a distressing complaint in a patient. 6. He would work in the Anatomi­cal Museum if he were free.

1. to expect, expectable, expectance, expectant; 2. to facilitate, facil­ities, facility; 3. heredity, hereditary, hereditarily; 4. part, partial, par­ticle

Упражнение 6. Прочтите и переведите следующие словосочетания.

infectious desease, diseases of childhood, to suffer from a disease, disease incidence, an expectant mother, a hereditary disease, partial pressure

Упражнение 7. Просмотрите текст А и скажите, что было известно о вирусах до изобретения электронного микроскопа и что нового узнали о вирусах после его изобретения.

Text А Viruses

\

1. /jFor three-quarters of a century, scientists have known that many diseases of man, animals, plants and even of microorganisms are caused by transmissible agents which cannot be seen under the light microscope, they afe so small that they can pass through filters fine enough to hold back the most minute bacteria. These mysterious invisible agents were given the generic name;of virusesiln the 1930's, two great discoveries were made which provided concrete informa­tion concerning the nature of viruses. It was found that some of them would be crystallized almost as readily as if they were ordinary chemical substances.

2. Chemically, the active virus particles were found to behave like giant molecules. At about the same time, the electron microscope became available and permitted pictures to be obtained of these crys­tals as well as of particles present in fluids and other materials having virus activity. Viruses would now be seen as concrete objects instead of being merely imagined.

3. ^)The first unexpected fact revealed by electron microscopy was that the various viruses differ among themselves in shape and in size, as various types of bacteria. The virologist can differentiate between sever­al types of viruses on the basis of their size and shape as revealed by electron micrographs. For example, the vaccinia virus is rather large. In contrast, the polioviruses are much smaller and yield very characteristic Crystals. As to the tobacco mosaic virus, it can be crystallized in the form of thin needles having different lengths. $The viruses that attack bacteria, which are called bacteriophages, are more complex, at least in .hape. Many of them have a thin tail and a large round or cylindrical hcad.VEach active virus particle consists of at least two very different ivpes of structural components. One structure made up of nucleic acid, carries the genetic hereditary characteristics of the virus. Another, pro­tein in nature, is thought to protect this genetic apparatus and to facil­itate its transfer from one infected cell to another. For example, elec­tron micrographs revealed that virus of tobacco mosaic consisted of an inner constituent of nucleic acid lodged within an outer coat, cylindri­cal in shape and made up of protein. The central structure, the core, should be compared to the nucleus of ordinary cells in higher organ­isms, which also contains large amounts of nucleic acid and also carries the genetic endowment. In fact, the nucleic acid core of this virus is its most essential constituent. However, proteins and nucleic acids are not the only structural components of active viruses. Certain viral particles have recently been shown to contain lipids as part of their essential structures. High-magnification electron micrographs will reveal further­more that some of them possess a distinct membrane. If we examined t he structure of some of bacteria under highmagnification electron mi- croscope we should see that they possess a distinct membrane.

Упражнение 8. Прочтите и переведите текст А. Первый и второй абзацы переведите письменно.

Упражнение 9. Найдите в тексте А ответы на следующие вопросы.

1. What have scientists known about viruses until the electrone mi­croscope became available? 2. What two great discoveries were made in the 1930's? 3. Can the virologists differentiate between the types of viruses on the basis of their size or shape? 4. Are proteins and nucleic acids the only structural components of active viruses?

Упражнение 10. Составьте письменно план текста А.

Упражнение 11. Найдите в каждом абзаце текста А предложение, ныражающее основную мысль данного абзаца, и переведите его.

Упражнение 12. Найдите в каждом ряду слово, синонимичное по значению первому слову ряда.

1. ordinary — everyday, common, usual, often, habitual; 2. to reveal- to detect, to open, to find, to show, to demonstrate; 3. remarkable — usual, seldom, unusual, interesting; 4. material — findings, essence,data, evidence, matter

Упражнение 13. Найдите в каждом ряду слово, противоположное по значению первому слову ряда.

1. inner - outside, out, outward, outer; 2. different - some, equal, something, the same; 3. to facilitate - to prevent, to hamper, to influ­ence, to ignore; 4. within - out, outward, outer, out of, outside

Упражнение 14. Переведите следующие предложения. Определите функции глаголов:shall, should, will, would.

1. The most obvious properties of the ultramicroscopic viruses should be classified according to a) their invisibility with ordinary microscope; b) their refusal to multiply in artificial media; c) their ability to pass filters which hold back the smallest known bacteria. 2. In 1892 D. Ivanovs- ki found that the sap of leaves attacked by mosaic disease would retain its infectious qualities even after filtration. 3. Before the middle of the nineteenth century the word «virus» would be commonly applied to all toxic or poisonous substances. 4. If you examined viruses in the electron microscope, you would see that the particles of each type of virus pos­sessed a characteristic shape and size. 5. If the strains of virus to which people are subjected are too different from thpse in the vaccine, the vaccine will become useless. 6. They shall improve their method of investigation if they want to obtain good results.

Упражнение 15. Переведите на английский язык данные предложения письменно.

1. Вирусы вызывают заболевания у людей, растений и даже микроорганизмов. 2. Вирусы табачной мозаики образуют крис­таллы в форме тонких иголок различной длины. 3. Некоторые вирусы, как показали последние исследования, в своей структуре помимо белка и нуклеиновой кислоты содержат липиды и обо­лочки.

Часть II

Слова к части II

consequently ['konsikwsntli] advеле- moisture ['moistfa] nвлага

довательно, в связи с этим pollute [pa'lu:t] vзагрязнять

distinction [dis'tirjkjn] nотличие, раз- pollution [pa'lurjn] nзагрязнение граничение

Управления

Vnpaaoiemie1. Прочтите и переведите следующие слова.

destructive, microorganisms, chlorophyll, spores, to vary, variety, ocean, especially, polluted, alkaline, reservoir, mucus, mucous

Упражнение 2. Дайте исходные слова, от которых образованы следующие производные. Переведитеихнарусскийязык.

1. occurrence, occurrent; 2. moisten, moisture, moistureless; 3. dis­tinctly, distinction, distinctive, distinctively

Упражнение 3. Прочтите текст текст В (10 мин). 1) Разделите его на 2 части соответственно вопросам:

1. What are bacteria?

2. Where do they occur?

2) Найдите и переведите: а) условные придаточные предложения, кото­рые выражают маловероятные предположения; б) предложения с много- жачными глаголамиshall, will, should, would.

Text В

What are Bacteria?

Bacteria rule the world. Man is dependent upon them from the day of his birth until the hour of his death. They are man's most useful servants and his most destructive masters. One is prone to ask: What are bacte­ria? Where do they occur? What are their functions?

Bacteria are minute single-celled living beings devoid of roots, leaves and stems. They are so small that they can be seen only with the aid of a powerful microscope; They are often spoken of as microorganisms. This term includes not only bacteria but all forms of life so small that you should require the microscope in their study. They are often re­ferred to as germs or microbes. The early investigators considered them animals and would refer to them as «animalcules».

If we examined the bacteria we should find that they have many of the characteristics of animals. Some have the power of independent motion. All are devoid of green colouring matter, chlorophyll; most of them are compelled to live upon complex foods as do the animals. Their general structure, their methods of growth, their formation of threads and spores, and their simplicity in some of the lower forms of plant life, have caused the biologist to class them as plants. However, it is impos­sible to make a clear-cut¹ distinction between some microscopical plants and some microscopical animals.^he important thing to remember is that .bacteria are the simplest forms of life, and partake of the character­istics of both plants and animals. For this reason, and for convenience, scientists agree to consider the bacteria with the plants.

Where do bacteria occur? Bacteria are widely distributed, occurring nearly everywhere. They are found in all natural soils, the number vary­ing with the kind of soil, quantity of plant and animal debris present, moisture and treatment. They decrease in number with depth. Although they occur in air, it is not their natural home as under ordinary condi­tions they cannot grow and multiply in it. The number and variety found in air vary. The atmosphere of some high mountains and the air over the ocean far from shore may be free from bacteria. City and country air also differ from each other in the number and kind of bac­teria which they contain. There is a great variation in the air of build­ings. Bacteria are especially numerous where dust is plentiful.

Most natural waters contain many bacteria. In sewage and polluted waters² they are especially numerous. If measures against pollution and contamination of water were not taken in time there would be much danger to people's health. They occur only in small numbers or not at all in deep wells³ and springs.⁴ A turbid stream, which contains the drainage of many cities, has a great variety and number of bacteria in opposition to the clear, rapid flowing water of uninhabited mountainous regions. ⁴

The intestines, owing to their alkaline reaction and the partly digested condition of their contents, are a great reservoir of bacteria. In the upper part there are few, but in the descending colon billions of bacteria are present. Sometimes they constitute one third of the total dry contents of the intestine. The health of the individual is determined by the number and kind of bacteria.

The normal tissues and the blood of animals are usually free from bacte­ria. If ordinary saprophytic bacteria entered the animal's body they would be ingested and destroyed by leukocytes. Microorganisms are rarely found on certain healthy mucous membranes, such as those of the kidneys, blad­der and lungs. Occasionally they pass through the skin or the mucous membranes of the digestive tract after which they may be found for a short time in the blood. In certain diseased conditions the blood and tissues of man and lower animals become filled with bacteria.

Functions of Bacteria. The real significance of bacteria comes in the fact that we are living in a world filled with them. They cannot be kept out of the

ilimentary tract. Considerable attention should be given to the favouring of i he beneficial bacteria in man. The great Russian bacteriologist Mechnikov i laimed that the rate with which man ages would be determined not by the vears he has lived, but by the bacteria, which inhabit his digestive system.

Notes

1. clear-cut четкий

2. sewage waters сточные воды

3. well колодец

4. spring источник

Упражнение 4. Найдите в тексте предложения, более полно выражающие мысль данных суждений.

1. Man is dependent upon bacteria. 2. Bacteria are very small. 3. Bacte­ria are often spoken of as microorganisms. 4. They have many characteris­tics of animals. 5. Some characteristics of bacteria have caused the biologist to class them as plants. 6. We are living in a world filled with bacteria.

ЧастьIII .

Контрольно - обобщающие упражнения к уроку 14

Упражнение 1. Найдите условные придаточные предложения, которые ныражают: а) маловероятное предположение; б) упущенную возможность совершить действие. Переведитепредложения. . **

1. If you observe bacterial protoplasm under the optical microscope, it would appear simple in structure. 2. If the individual were in a healthy state, a large quantity of virulent microorganisms entering the body would be destroyed. 3. Certain water forms of bacteria, would die, if they were held above 30°C for more than a few minutes. 4. If bacteria had entered the body at the time of its active and unweakened condition they would have given it a very mild form of the disease. 5. It certian hygienie measures had been carried out we should have prevented the last year fatal epidemics.

(Ответ:a) 1, 2, 3. 6) 4, 5. Если вы ошиблись, повторите § 31 Грамматического справочника.)

Упражнение 2. Укажите, в каких предложениях словаshall, will, should, wouldимеют модальное значение. Переведитеэтипредложения.

1. Great care should be taken ip cultivating bacteria. 2. The water should be kept clean by filtration and safe by desinfection with chlorine to destroy pathogenic and other forms of bacteria. 3. Pasteur could not believe that two compounds which acted so differently in one respect would be absolutely identical in every other way. 4. In the investigation of yellow fever it became necessary to find human volunteers who would risk contracting yellow fever. 5. They shall correct their mistakes them­selves. 6. It will be difficult to diagnose this case.

(Ответ: 1, 2, 4, 5. Если вы ошиблись, повторите § 33 Граммати­ческого справочника.)

Упражнение 3. Дайте форму множественного числа от следующих слов:

bacillus, bacterium, coccus, foot, virus, genus, spirillum (Ответ: bacilli, bacteria, cocci, feet, viruses, genera, spirilla.)

Упражнение 4. Выберите правильное значение выделенных слов.

1. Bacteria may occur(происходить, случаться; встречаться) free or in aggregates. 2. The smallest bacteria are beyond the range(линия,ряд; предел) of our most powerful light microscopes. 3. The size of the microscopical organisms can be estimated by filtration, consequently they are referred to(направлятьк ...; упоминать; относитьк ...) as filtrable viruses. 4. Viruses attack all parts of the body excepf(исключая; помимо) the digestive system.

IV. Pathology

LESSON FIFTEEN

OSTEOMYELITIS, FRACTURES

Повторение:ВременагруппыIndefinite (Active and Passive Voice) (§§ 10, 14)

Часть I

Слова к части I

acute [a'kju:t] а острый suppurative ['sApjus,reitiv] а гнойный suppuration [,sApjud'reiJh] nнагноение, гной