Staying Power

People have pondered the power of_ nails since the Roman days.

But only in the past 100 years have nails come into_ widespread use in

homes and furniture. For centuries, blacksmiths made nails one at a time, at considerable expense, by drawing a short rod of red-hot iron, hammering one end to a point and pounding the other end to a head. By

the late 1700s _ nailsmiths had devised hand-operated machines that

could cut nails from flat iron sheets. By the 1880s steam-powered

machines sped up the process and "cut nails" became less expensive; however, their strength was still variable.

That changed in the early 1900s. when steel became both flexible and very strong. Machines cut nails and formed the tip and head in one step from a long spool of steel wire. That process allows manufacturers to craft many types of nail points and shanks that improve performance.

Simple friction against a nail shank holds two pieces of wood together and prevents the nail from loosening as vibrations and changes in

_ temperature and___ humidity expand and contract the wood's fibers.

The same manufacturing techniques and holding traits apply to staples,

which are essentially two nails joined by a crossbar. To help a nail stay

put, manufacturers may etch __ micropits into what appears to be a

smooth shank or add rings or barbs, all to better grip the fibers. Certain coatings, such as resin, may increase friction, too. although others may not. "Different manufacturers make different claims, but little scientific research has been done on coatings." says Ron Wolfe, a research engineer at the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory in Madison. Wis., which tests the properties of nails.

Most people take nails for granted, but their simple yet powerful physics make them vital tools. English poet George Herbert reminded his contemporaries of their worth in his early 1600s work Jacula Prudentum

(first three lines that follow), extended by_ other, unknown enthusiasts

(final two lines): "For want of о nail the shoe is lost / For want of я shoe the horse is lost / For want of a horse the rider is lost / For w ant of a rider the battle is lost / For want of a battle the kingdom is lost."

ponder - размышлять staple - скоба

pound /'paund/ - колотить, вбивать crossbar - поперечина

spool - катушка ^etch - травить, вытравливать

shank - стержень barb - заусенец

Ш Грамматические трансформации при переводе Грамматические замены

Подлежащее английского предложения превращается в объект или обстоятельство в русском предложении

Часто используют преобразования, в которых подлежащее английского предложения в переводе становится обстоятельством или объектом действия. Сравните английские предложения и их перевод:

1. В театре имеются 200 мест.

2. В последнее десятилетие 20 века в России произошли большие экономические и политические изменения.

3. Этому может быть другое объяснение.

4. Из-за этого платья онаизменилась почти до неузнаваемости.

5. Из-за этого стало недействи­тельным наше соглашение.

6. У «его будут проблемы.