Leadership

Organisational psychologists have also been involved in studying leadership. Much of the early research into leadership tended to look for particular people who had leadership 'qualities' − who automatically acted like leaders and took on leadership responsibilities when that sort of situation arose. Later, psychologists became more and more interested in the idea that effective leadership was actually a style of interacting with people, rather than a specific inherited personality trait.

Approaches to leadership became concerned with just how organisational leaders or managers influence the people in their working groups. Some theories have seen effective leaders as having preferred styles, which concentrate on either the job at hand, or on the people they are dealing with. Task-oriented leaders are people who focus on the job which has to be done, whereas process-oriented ones are more concerned with making sure that everything in the group runs smoothly, and that people get along well together.

Interestingly, and contrary to what we might expect, the evidence suggests that process-oriented leaders actually get more done in the end. Although the task-oriented leaders are only concerned with what needs to be done, they are less efficient overall because they allow tensions and resentments to build up in their teams, and in the end this means that people work less productively. Process-oriented leaders, on the other hand, concentrate on making sure that people are reasonably happy with one another, and with what is going on, so that they are free to give their best efforts to the job.

This led to a focus on leadership as being all about the transactions which take place between manager and employee. Transactions are interpersonal exchanges between two people. Often these take the form of strokes: ritual greetings or enquiries which signal that the two people have recognised one another. A habitual 'good morning' exchanged between two people at a bus stop or tram station is a good example of a stroke. The words of the exchange are relatively unimportant, but the greeting signals that the two have acknowledged one another. As we have already seen, being recognised by other people matters to us, so the everyday strokes that we get from other people can be very important. We may not notice them much when they happen, but we certainly miss them if they do not.

The idea of transactional leadership is that effective leadership is essentially a joint thing, depending on both the manager and the employee. How effective a leader is depends on how both the leader and the employees interact. It does not just depend on the leader alone. After all, people will not co-operate with someone who does not seem to come up to scratch, so a leader who comes across as being ineffectual or incompetent is not going to be able to influence other people very much.

What this means is that a manager, consciously or unconsciously, negotiates his position with the employees. It is an interpersonal relationship, and their influence depends on being respected or valued. That is where the transactions come in. Strokes, for instance, can be either positive or negative: they can help us to feel good, or they can make us feel unhappy. Positive leaders look for ways of encouraging their staff to feel good – by recognising their achievements and helping them to get around difficulties. Negative leaders criticise their staff, and only notice mistakes rather than positive achievements. As decades of organisational psychology have taught us, it is not a method that gets the best out of people, but they do it anyway.